1. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. CHAPTER 2 LECTURE SLIDES

2. Properties of Water

3. Covalent bonds Form when atoms share 2 or more valence electrons Results in no net charge, satisfies octet rule, no unpaired electrons Strength of covalent bond depends on the number of shared electrons Many biological compounds are composed of more than 2 atoms – may share electrons with 2 or more atoms 3

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5. Electronegativity Atom’s affinity for electrons Differences in electronegativity dictate how electrons are distributed in covalent bonds –Nonpolar covalent bonds = equal sharing of electrons –Polar covalent bonds = unequal sharing of electrons 5

6. Water Life is inextricably tied to water Single most outstanding chemical property of water is its ability to form hydrogen bonds –Weak chemical associations that form between the partially negative O atoms and the partially positive H atoms of two water molecules 6

7. Polarity of water Within a water molecule, the bonds between oxygen and hydrogen are highly polar –O is much more electronegative than H Partial electrical charges develop –Oxygen is partially negative δ + –Hydrogen is partially positive δ – 7

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9. Hydrogen bonds Cohesion – polarity of water allows water molecules to be attracted to one another Attraction produces hydrogen bonds Each individual bond is weak and transitory Cumulative effects are enormous Responsible for many of water’s important physical properties 9

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11. Cohesion – water molecules stick to other water molecules by hydrogen bonding Adhesion – water molecules stick to other polar molecules by hydrogen bonding 11

12. Surface tension, a measure of the force necessary to stretch or break the surface of a liquid, is related to cohesion. – Water has a greater surface tension than most other liquids because hydrogen bonds among surface water molecules resist stretching or breaking the surface. – Water behaves as if covered by an invisible film. – Some animals can stand, walk, or run on water without breaking the surface. 12

13. Properties of water 1.Water has a high specific heat –A large amount of energy is required to change the temperature of water –One calorie is the amount of heat energy necessary to raise the temperature of one g of water by 1 o C. 2.Water has a high heat of vaporization –The evaporation of water from a surface causes cooling of that surface 3.Solid water is less dense than liquid water –Bodies of water freeze from the top down 13

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15. 4.Water is a good solvent –Water dissolves polar molecules and ions 5.Water organizes nonpolar molecules –Hydrophilic “water-loving” –Hydrophobic “water-fearing” –Water causes hydrophobic molecules to aggregate or assume specific shapes 6. Water can form ions H 2 O  OH – + H + hydroxide ionhydrogen ion 15

16. Acids and bases Pure water –[H + ] of 10 –7 mol/L –Considered to be neutral –Neither acidic nor basic pH is the negative logarithm of hydrogen ion concentration of solution 16

17. Acid – Any substance that dissociates in water to increase the [H + ] (and lower the pH) – The stronger an acid is, the more hydrogen ions it produces and the lower its pH Base – Substance that combines with H + dissolved in water, and thus lowers the [H + ] 17

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19. Buffers Substance that resists changes in pH Act by – Releasing hydrogen ions when a base is added – Absorbing hydrogen ions when acid is added Overall effect of keeping [H+] relatively constant There are two types of chemical buffers in body fluids--the carbonate and phosphate buffer systems. The phosphate system (NaH 2 PO 4 and Na 2 HPO 4 ) effectively buffers urine and cytoplasm. The carbonate system (a mixture of carbonic acid, H 2 CO 3, and sodium bicarbonate, NaHCO 3 ) is present in both tissue fluid and blood. The concentration of buffering substances is regulated by the lungs and/or kidneys 19

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21. Most biological buffers consist of a pair of molecules, one an acid and one a base 21

22. As with all proteins, hemoglobin’s conformation is sensitive to a variety of factors. For example, a drop in pH lowers the affinity of hemoglobin for O 2, an effect called the Bohr shift. Because CO 2 reacts with water to form carbonic acid, an active tissue will lower the pH of its surroundings and induce hemoglobin to release more oxygen. 22

23. In addition to oxygen transport, hemoglobin also helps transport carbon dioxide and assists in buffering blood pH. – About 7% of the CO 2 released by respiring cells is transported in solution. – Another 23% binds to amino groups of hemoglobin. – About 70% is transported as bicarbonate ions. 23 Carbon dioxide from respiring cells diffuses into the blood plasma and then into red blood cells, where some is converted to bicarbonate, assisted by the enzyme carbonic anhydrase. At the lungs, the equilibrium shifts in favor of conversion of bicarbonate to CO 2.

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