1. Nursing Research
Prof. Nawal A. Fouad
(5)
March
2007

2. Research Problems and Hypotheses

3. Research Process Formulating the problem Reviewing related literature
Developing/utilizing a theoretical framework
Identifying research variables
Formulating hypotheses
Selecting a research design
Specifying the population
Operationalizing & measuring research variables
Conducting pilot study & making revisions
Selecting the sample
Collecting the data
Organizing the data for analysis
Analyzing the data
Interpreting the results
Communicating the findings

4. Developing & Refining a Research Problem

5. A researcher spends a great deal of time refining a
research idea into a testable research problem
The process of defining a research problem:
Define a specific problem area
Review relevant scientific literature
Examine the problem’s potential significance to nursing
Pragmatically examine the feasibility of studying the research problem

6. 1. Defining the Problem Area
Researchers generally begin with an interest in some broad topic area
Usually the research focuses on the dependent variable of the study, the variable that will be predicted or explained through its relationship to the independent variable.

7. 2. Beginning the Literature Review
The literature review should reveal that the scientific literature relevant to the problem area has been critically examined. Often concluding sections on recommendations and implications for practice identifying remaining gaps in the literature, the need for replication, or the need for extension of the knowledge base about a particular research focus

8. 3. Significance
Before proceeding to a final formulation of the problem statement, it is crucial for the researcher to examine the problem’s potential significance to nursing.

9. The problem should have the following criteria:
Patients, nurses, the medical community in general, and society will potentially benefit from the knowledge derived from this study
Results will be applicable for nursing practice, education, or administration

10. Results will be theoretically relevant
Findings will lend support to untested theoretical assumptions, extend or challenge an existing theory, or clarify a conflict in the literature
Findings will potentially formulate or alter nursing practice or policies

11. 4. Feasibility
Feasibility of a research problem includes considerations such as time, availability of subjects, facilities, equipment and money.
The experience of the researcher, and any ethical considerations may cause the researcher to decide that the problem in inappropriate because it lack feasibility

12. If the research problem has not met any of these criteria,
it is wise to extensively
revise the problem or discard it

13. Development of a Research problem

14. Review of the Literature
Idea emerges
Brainstorming
Review of the Literature
Identify Variables
Research Problem is Formulated

15. The Variables
A variable is something that varies. Researchers attempt to understand how and why differences in one variable are related to differences in another variable.
The researcher is asking a question about the relationship between one or more independent variables and a dependent variable.
Independent variable is the variable that has the presumed effect on the dependent variable is manipulated by the researcher.

16. The Variables
In nonexperimental research the independent variable is not manipulated and is assumed to have occurred naturally before or during the study.
Dependent variable is the consequence or the presumed effect that varies with a change in the independent variable.
The dependent variable is not manipulated, it is observed and assumed to vary with changes in the independent variable.
Predictions are made from the independent variable to the dependent variable.

17. The Variables
It is the dependent variable that the researcher is interested in understanding, explaining and predicting.
Although variability in the dependent variable is assumed to depend on changes in the independent variable, that doesn’t imply that there is a casual relationship.
There is no restriction on the number of variables that can be included in a problem statement.

18. The Variables
Problem statements that include more than one independent or dependent variables may be broken down into subproblems that are not concise.
Variables are not inherently independent or dependent.
A variable that is classified as independent in one study may be considered dependent in another study.

19. Population
The term population refers to the aggregate or totality of all the objects or subjects or members which conform to a designated set of specifications
The nature of the population being studied needs to be specified in the problem statement.

20. The Final Problem Statement
A problem statement can be:
Declarative
Interrogative
A good problem statement exhibits the following:
It clearly and unambiguously identifies the study variables
It clearly expresses the variables’ relationship to each other
It specifies the nature of the population being studied
It implies the possibility of empirical testing
Both are acceptable

21. The Final Problem Statement
The problem is associated with the purpose of the study,
but it is not identical.
The purpose of the study encompasses the aims or goals the investigator hopes to achieve with the research,
not the problem to be solved

22. Testability
The statement of the research problem must imply that the problem is testable, i.e. measurable by either quantitative or qualitative methods
A research problem must propose a relationship between at least one independent and one dependent variable indicating that these variables can be measured

23. Developing the Research Hypotheses

24. Hypotheses: intelligent hunches, guesses, or predictions that assist the researcher in seeking the solution or answer to the research question.
A theory’s validity is not directly examined. Instead, it is through the hypotheses that the merit of a theory can be evaluated

25. Hypotheses are often not stated explicitly in a research article
Hypotheses flow from the problem statement, literature review, and theoretical framework

26. Each hypothesis represents a unit or subset of the research problem
Hypotheses are formulated before the study is conducted because they provide direction for the collection, analysis, and interpretation of data

27. Interrelationship of Problem Statement, Literature Review, Theoretical Framework, and Hypothesis

28. Theoretical Framework
Hypothesis
Literature Review
Problem Statement

29. Purposes of Hypotheses
Provide a bridge between theory and reality
Enable researcher to objectively enter new areas of discovery
Provide direction for any research endeavor by tentatively identifying the anticipated outcome

30. Criteria for Formulating/Evaluating Hypotheses

31. The Relationship Statement
A declarative statement that identifies the predicted relationship between two or more variables
The direction of the relationship is also specified in this statement e.g. greater than, less than, negatively, positively ….

32. The nature of the relationship, either causal or associative, is also implied by the hypothesis
A causal relationship is one where the researcher is able to predict that the independent variable causes a change in the dependent variable
It is rare in research that one is in a firm enough position to take a definitive stand about a cause-and effect relationship so,
One can only say that there is an associative relationship between the variables

33. Testability
Means that the variables of the study must lend themselves to observation, measurement, and analysis
The hypothesis is either supported or not supported after the data have been collected and analyzed

34. Theory Base
A sound hypothesis is consistent with an existing body of theory and research findings
Regardless of whether or not a hypothesis is arrived at inductively or deductively, it must be based on a sound scientific rationale

35. Wording the Hypothesis
Hypothesis should be worded in clear, simple and concise terms
Directional Vs Nondirectional hypotheses:
Directional hypothesis: specifies the expected direction of the relationship between the independent and dependent variables
Nondirectional hypothesis: indicates the existence of a relationship between the variables but does not specify the anticipated direction of the relationship

36. A deductive hypothesis derived from a theory will almost always be directional.
The theory will provide a critical rationale for proposing that relationships between variables will have particular output

37. Statistical versus Research hypotheses
Statistical hypotheses
(null hypotheses): states that there is no relationship between independent and dependent variables
Research hypothesis
(scientific hypothesis): a statement of expected relationship between the variables. It can be directional or nondirectional

38. A hypothesis can either be
supported or not supported by study findings
Rejection of the statistical hypothesis is equivalent to acceptance of the research hypothesis

39. Relationship Between Hypotheses
&
Research design

40. The type of research design; experimental or non-experimental, will influence the wording of the hypothesis
In case of an experimental design, the hypothesis will reflect cause effect relationship
e.g. incidence of …. will be greater in subjects after …. than after ….

41. Hypothesis related to non-experimental designs reflect associative relationship statements
e.g. there will be a positive relationship between … and ….

42. Research Questions

43. Exploratory studies usually have research questions not hypotheses
The outcome of an exploratory study may help in formulating hypotheses for future studies
Qualitative research studies are guided by research questions rather than hypotheses
The descriptive findings of qualitative studies can provide the basis for future hypothesis-testing studies

44. Some studies may have research questions and hypotheses
Some studies may have research questions and hypotheses. In such case, research questions do not pertain to the proposed outcomes, rather, they may provide additional information that may enrich the study and may provide direction for further study

45. Critiquing
the Research Problem

46. Was the problem statement introduced promptly?
Is the problem stated clearly and unambiguously in declarative or research form?

47. Does the problem statement express a relationship between two or more variables or at least between an independent and a dependent variable, implying empirical testing?
Does the problem statement specify the nature of the population being studied?

48. Has the problem been substantiated with adequate experiential and scientific background material?
Has the problem been placed within the context of an appropriate theoretical framework?

49. Has the significance of the problem been identified?
Have pragmatic issues, such as feasibility, been addressed?
Have the purpose, aims, or goals of the study been identified?

50. the Research Hypotheses
Critiquing
the Research Hypotheses

51. Does the hypothesis directly relate to the research problem?
Is the hypothesis concisely stated in a declarative form?
Are the independent and dependent variables in the statement of the hypothesis?

52. Are the variables measurable or potentially measurable?
Is each of the hypotheses specific to one relationship so that each hypothesis can be either supported or not supported?

53. Is the hypothesis stated in such a way that it is testable?
Is the hypothesis stated objectively, without value-laden words?
Is the direction of the relationship in each hypothesis clearly stated?

54. Is the theoretical rationale for the hypothesis explicit?
Are research questions appropriately used?

55. Thank You