1. Perfect Forms Lecture 15

2. The perfective aspect ► An earlier action or state has relevance at a later reference point, or point of orientation. ► perfective aspect + present tense ("Present Perfect") → the reference point is identical with the speech moment (). ► perfective aspect + present tense ("Present Perfect") → the reference point is identical with the speech moment (John has bought a new car). ► perfective aspect + past tense ("Past Perfect") → the reference point is earlier than the speech moment ( ). ► perfective aspect + past tense ("Past Perfect") → the reference point is earlier than the speech moment (John had bought a new car when I met him last week).

3. Differences b/n the Past and the Present Perfect if the main verb is dynamic: Past Present Perfect Focuses on the past action: John bought a new car last week (he may or may not have sold it since then). Focuses on the present relevance (result) of the past action: John has bought a new car (the car is still in his possession). Refers to a period that terminated before the speech moment: John Smith wrote four novels (before he died/in the 60s etc.) Refers to a period of time that includes the speech moment: John Smith has written four novels (he may write more)

4. ► It follows that only the Past can co-occur with definite past time expressions (adverbials) such as, etc. ► It follows that only the Past can co-occur with definite past time expressions (adverbials) such as last week/month/year, in the 60s, before he died, etc. ► Both the Past and the Past perfect can co- occur with adverbials expressing duration, however: cf. ► Both the Past and the Past perfect can co- occur with adverbials expressing duration, however: cf. John lived in Paris for 20 years and John has lived in Paris for 20 years.

5. Perfect → it makes an explicit reference to the relation b/n an implied resultant situation and a previous situation that brought about it 1. Perfect of Result. It indicates the persistence of a previous situation at some fixed moment of time: He has retired as chairman of the historical society. 2. Perfect of Experience. It indicates that a situation has taken place at least once in the previous period of time: She has written a novel before.

6. Perfect 3. Perfect of Persistent Situation. It reports a situation that started in the past and persists into the present: He has taught German since 1985. 4. Perfect of Recent Past. It denotes a previous situation specified by means of the adverbs ‘recently’, ‘just’, etc. They have just left.