1. 1 Psychology 320: Gender Psychology Lecture 3

2. 2 Research Methods 1.What research methods do psychologists use to study gender? (continued)

3. 3 Theory Hypothesis Operationalization Research Data Interactive Relationship What research methods do psychologists use to study gender? (continued)

4. 4 Once a theory has been developed and a hypothesis has been generated, all constructs must be operationalized. Operationalization refers to the translation of a conceptual variable or “construct” into a variable that can be directly observed and measured.

5. 5 Examples of operationalizations: Construct: Aggression. Operationalization: Frequency with which one engages in verbal or physical altercations with others. Construct: Femininity. Operationalization: Scores on a measure of stereotypically feminine characteristics (e.g., gentleness, emotionality, helpfulness).

6. 6 Once a theory has been developed, a hypothesis has been generated, and all constructs have been operationalized, research may be conducted. Psychologists typically use the following research methods to study gender:

7. 7 1. Experimental Studies  Designed to examine cause and effect relationships between variables.  May range from simple to complex.  In simple experiments, there are only two levels of the hypothesized “causal” variable or independent variable (IV).

8. 8  Steps involved in conducting a simple experiment: (a)Participants are randomly assigned to one of two groups—Group A or Group B. (b) Group A and Group B are exposed to different treatments or conditions. The different treatments or conditions form the 2 levels of the IV. (c) Group A and Group B are posttested on the “effect” variable or dependent variable (DV).

9. 9 Participants Group A Group B Random Assignment Treatment A Posttest A Simple Experiment Treatment B Posttest

10. 10  Experiments are feasible only when sex, gender or sexual orientation are target variables, not subject variables.

11. 11  Example of an experiment: Wirth and Bodenhausen (2009) Presented male and female participants with case summaries of Karen and Brian; Karen and Brian suffered from either alcoholism (male-typical) or depression (female-typical). Examined participants’ reactions to males and females suffering from gender-typical and gender atypical mental illness.

12. 12 Randomly assigned participants to one of four conditions: Karen/depression; Karen/alcoholism; Brian/depression; Brian/alcoholism. Assessed participants’ negative affective reactions, sympathetic affective reactions, willingness to help, and views regarding the etiology of the mental illness.

13. 13 Participants experienced less negative affect, greater sympathetic affect, and greater willingness to help with respect to those who suffered gender- atypical mental illness. Participants were more likely to believe that the etiology of gender-atypical mental illness was biological. Presumably, gender-atypical mental illness elicited less stigma because participants believed these cases were the result of biological causes.

14. 14  Commonly employed when experiments are not feasible.  Designed to compare two or more intact groups on some variable of interest (i.e., the DV).  Among the most frequently used methods in research on sex, gender, and sexual orientation. 2. Ex Post Facto Studies (Quasi-Experimental Studies)

15. 15  Example of an ex post facto study: Rotter and Rotter (1988) Contrasted males and females with respect to ability to recognize facial expressions of negative emotions (i.e., the DV). In contrast to males, females were better able to recognize sadness, disgust, and fear. In contrast to females, males were better able to recognize anger (particularly in other males).

16. 16  A cautionary note about the interpretation of mean differences between males and females: X Males X Females

17. 17 3. Correlational Studies  Designed to examine the extent to which 2 naturally- occurring variables covary.  Typically measured by the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient (r).  r measures the extent to which a linear relationship exists between 2 variables.

18. 18 Masculinity Scores r = +1.00 Positive Linear Relationship Aggressiveness Scores

19. 19 Negative Linear Relationship r = -1.00 Aggressiveness Scores Femininity Scores

20. 20  Thus, the r between two variables may range in value from +1.00 to -1.00. Magnitude of r: strength of the relationship between the variables. Sign of r (+ vs. -): direction of the relationship between the variables.

21. 21 School Conflict Scores Masculinity Scores Nonlinear or Curvilinear Relationship r = 0.00

22. 22  Example of a correlational study: Dias (2003).Examined the correlations among femininity, depression, anxiety, self-esteem, and assertiveness. Femininity was positively correlated with depression and anxiety, and negatively correlated with self- esteem and assertiveness. The positive correlations were attributed to greater co-dependency among those high in femininity.

23. 23 Research Methods 1.What research methods do psychologists use to study gender? (continued)