1. Skeletal Cartilage Contains no blood vessels or nerves Contains no blood vessels or nerves Surrounded by the perichondrium (dense irregular connective tissue) that resists outward expansion Surrounded by the perichondrium (dense irregular connective tissue) that resists outward expansion Three types – hyaline, elastic, and fibrocartilage Three types – hyaline, elastic, and fibrocartilage

2. Hyaline Cartilage Provides support, flexibility, and resilience Provides support, flexibility, and resilience Is the most abundant skeletal cartilage Is the most abundant skeletal cartilage Is present in these cartilages: Is present in these cartilages: Articular – covers the ends of long bones Articular – covers the ends of long bones Costal – connects the ribs to the sternum Costal – connects the ribs to the sternum Respiratory – makes up larynx, reinforces air passages Respiratory – makes up larynx, reinforces air passages Nasal – supports the nose Nasal – supports the nose

3. Elastic Cartilage Similar to hyaline cartilage, but contains elastic fibers Similar to hyaline cartilage, but contains elastic fibers Found in the external ear and the epiglottis Found in the external ear and the epiglottis

4. Fibrocartilage Highly compressed with great tensile strength Highly compressed with great tensile strength Contains collagen fibers Contains collagen fibers Found in menisci of the knee and in intervertebral discs Found in menisci of the knee and in intervertebral discs

5. Growth of Cartilage Appositional – cells in the perichondrium secrete matrix against the external face of existing cartilage Appositional – cells in the perichondrium secrete matrix against the external face of existing cartilage Interstitial – lacunae-bound chondrocytes inside the cartilage divide and secrete new matrix, expanding the cartilage from within Interstitial – lacunae-bound chondrocytes inside the cartilage divide and secrete new matrix, expanding the cartilage from within Calcification of cartilage occurs Calcification of cartilage occurs During normal bone growth During normal bone growth During old age During old age

6. Bones and Cartilages of the Human Body Figure 6.1

7. Classification of Bones Axial skeleton – bones of the skull, vertebral column, and rib cage Axial skeleton – bones of the skull, vertebral column, and rib cage Appendicular skeleton – bones of the upper and lower limbs, shoulder, and hip Appendicular skeleton – bones of the upper and lower limbs, shoulder, and hip

8. Classification of Bones: By Shape Long bones – longer than they are wide (e.g., humerus) Long bones – longer than they are wide (e.g., humerus) Figure 6.2a

9. Classification of Bones: By Shape Short bones Short bones Cube-shaped bones of the wrist and ankle Cube-shaped bones of the wrist and ankle Bones that form within tendons (e.g., patella) Bones that form within tendons (e.g., patella) Figure 6.2b

10. Classification of Bones: By Shape Flat bones – thin, flattened, and a bit curved (e.g., sternum, and most skull bones) Flat bones – thin, flattened, and a bit curved (e.g., sternum, and most skull bones) Figure 6.2c

11. Classification of Bones: By Shape Irregular bones – bones with complicated shapes (e.g., vertebrae and hip bones) Irregular bones – bones with complicated shapes (e.g., vertebrae and hip bones) Figure 6.2d

12. Function of Bones Support – form the framework that supports the body and cradles soft organs Support – form the framework that supports the body and cradles soft organs Protection – provide a protective case for the brain, spinal cord, and vital organs Protection – provide a protective case for the brain, spinal cord, and vital organs Movement – provide levers for muscles Movement – provide levers for muscles

13. Function of Bones Mineral storage – reservoir for minerals, especially calcium and phosphorus Mineral storage – reservoir for minerals, especially calcium and phosphorus Blood cell formation – hematopoiesis occurs within the marrow cavities of bones Blood cell formation – hematopoiesis occurs within the marrow cavities of bones

14. Bone Markings Bulges, depressions, and holes that serve as: Bulges, depressions, and holes that serve as: Sites of attachment for muscles, ligaments, and tendons Sites of attachment for muscles, ligaments, and tendons Joint surfaces Joint surfaces Conduits for blood vessels and nerves Conduits for blood vessels and nerves

15. Bone Markings: Projections – Sites of Muscle and Ligament Attachment Tuberosity – rounded projection Tuberosity – rounded projection Crest – narrow, prominent ridge of bone Crest – narrow, prominent ridge of bone Trochanter – large, blunt, irregular surface Trochanter – large, blunt, irregular surface Line – narrow ridge of bone Line – narrow ridge of bone

16. Tubercle – small rounded projection Tubercle – small rounded projection Epicondyle – raised area above a condyle Epicondyle – raised area above a condyle Spine – sharp, slender projection Spine – sharp, slender projection Process – any bony prominence Process – any bony prominence Bone Markings: Projections – Sites of Muscle and Ligament Attachment

17. Bone Markings: Projections – Projections That Help to Form Joints Head – bony expansion carried on a narrow neck Head – bony expansion carried on a narrow neck Facet – smooth, nearly flat articular surface Facet – smooth, nearly flat articular surface Condyle – rounded articular projection Condyle – rounded articular projection Ramus – armlike bar of bone Ramus – armlike bar of bone

18. Bone Markings: Depressions and Openings Meatus – canal-like passageway Meatus – canal-like passageway Sinus – cavity within a bone Sinus – cavity within a bone Fossa – shallow, basin-like depression Fossa – shallow, basin-like depression Groove – furrow Groove – furrow Fissure – narrow, slit-like opening Fissure – narrow, slit-like opening Foramen – round or oval opening through a bone Foramen – round or oval opening through a bone

19. Gross Anatomy of Bones: Bone Textures Compact bone – dense outer layer Compact bone – dense outer layer Spongy bone – honeycomb of trabeculae filled with yellow bone marrow Spongy bone – honeycomb of trabeculae filled with yellow bone marrow

20. Bone Markings Table 6.1

21. Structure of Long Bone Long bones consist of a diaphysis and an epiphysis Long bones consist of a diaphysis and an epiphysis Diaphysis Diaphysis Tubular shaft that forms the axis of long bones Tubular shaft that forms the axis of long bones Composed of compact bone that surrounds the medullary cavity Composed of compact bone that surrounds the medullary cavity Yellow bone marrow (fat) is contained in the medullary cavity Yellow bone marrow (fat) is contained in the medullary cavity

22. Structure of Long Bone Epiphyses Epiphyses Expanded ends of long bones Expanded ends of long bones Exterior is compact bone, and the interior is spongy bone Exterior is compact bone, and the interior is spongy bone Joint surface is covered with articular (hyaline) cartilage Joint surface is covered with articular (hyaline) cartilage Epiphyseal line separates the diaphysis from the epiphyses Epiphyseal line separates the diaphysis from the epiphyses

23. Structure of Long Bone Figure 6.3

24. Structure of Long Bone Figure 6.3a

25. Structure of Long Bone Figure 6.3b

26. Structure of Long Bone Figure 6.3c

27. Bone Membranes Periosteum – double-layered protective membrane Periosteum – double-layered protective membrane Outer fibrous layer is dense regular connective tissue Outer fibrous layer is dense regular connective tissue Inner osteogenic layer is composed of osteoblasts and osteoclasts Inner osteogenic layer is composed of osteoblasts and osteoclasts Richly supplied with nerve fibers, blood, and lymphatic vessels, which enter the bone via nutrient foramina Richly supplied with nerve fibers, blood, and lymphatic vessels, which enter the bone via nutrient foramina Secured to underlying bone by Sharpey’s fibers Secured to underlying bone by Sharpey’s fibers

28. Bone Membranes Endosteum – delicate membrane covering internal surfaces of bone Endosteum – delicate membrane covering internal surfaces of bone

29. Structure of Short, Irregular, and Flat Bones Thin plates of periosteum-covered compact bone on the outside with endosteum-covered spongy bone (diploë) on the inside Thin plates of periosteum-covered compact bone on the outside with endosteum-covered spongy bone (diploë) on the inside Have no diaphysis or epiphyses Have no diaphysis or epiphyses Contain bone marrow between the trabeculae Contain bone marrow between the trabeculae

30. Structure of a Flat Bone Figure 6.4

31. Location of Hematopoietic Tissue (Red Marrow) In infants In infants Found in the medullary cavity and all areas of spongy bone Found in the medullary cavity and all areas of spongy bone In adults In adults Found in the diploë (between inner and outer walls) of flat bones, and the head of the femur and humerus Found in the diploë (between inner and outer walls) of flat bones, and the head of the femur and humerus

32. Microscopic Structure of Bone: Compact Bone Haversian system, or osteon – the structural unit of compact bone Haversian system, or osteon – the structural unit of compact bone Lamella – weight-bearing, column-like matrix tubes composed mainly of collagen Lamella – weight-bearing, column-like matrix tubes composed mainly of collagen Haversian, or central canal – central channel containing blood vessels and nerves Haversian, or central canal – central channel containing blood vessels and nerves Volkmann’s canals – channels lying at right angles to the central canal, connecting blood and nerve supply of the periosteum to that of the Haversian canal Volkmann’s canals – channels lying at right angles to the central canal, connecting blood and nerve supply of the periosteum to that of the Haversian canal

33. Microscopic Structure of Bone: Compact Bone Osteocytes – mature bone cells Osteocytes – mature bone cells Lacunae – small cavities in bone that contain osteocytes Lacunae – small cavities in bone that contain osteocytes Canaliculi – hairlike canals that connect lacunae to each other and the central canal Canaliculi – hairlike canals that connect lacunae to each other and the central canal

34. Microscopic Structure of Bone: Compact Bone Figure 6.6a, b

35. Microscopic Structure of Bone: Compact Bone Figure 6.6a

36. Microscopic Structure of Bone: Compact Bone Figure 6.6b

37. Microscopic Structure of Bone: Compact Bone Figure 6.6c

38. Chemical Composition of Bone: Organic Osteoblasts – bone-forming cells Osteoblasts – bone-forming cells Osteocytes – mature bone cells Osteocytes – mature bone cells Osteoclasts – large cells that resorb or break down bone matrix Osteoclasts – large cells that resorb or break down bone matrix Osteoid – unmineralized bone matrix composed of proteoglycans, glycoproteins, and collagen Osteoid – unmineralized bone matrix composed of proteoglycans, glycoproteins, and collagen

39. Chemical Composition of Bone: Inorganic Hydroxyapatites, or mineral salts Hydroxyapatites, or mineral salts Sixty-five percent of bone by mass Sixty-five percent of bone by mass Mainly calcium phosphates Mainly calcium phosphates Responsible for bone hardness and its resistance to compression Responsible for bone hardness and its resistance to compression

40. Bone Development Osteogenesis and ossification – the process of bone tissue formation, which leads to: Osteogenesis and ossification – the process of bone tissue formation, which leads to: The formation of the bony skeleton in embryos The formation of the bony skeleton in embryos Bone growth until early adulthood Bone growth until early adulthood Bone thickness, remodeling, and repair Bone thickness, remodeling, and repair

41. Formation of the Bony Skeleton Begins at week 8 of embryo development Begins at week 8 of embryo development Intramembranous ossification – bone develops from a fibrous membrane Intramembranous ossification – bone develops from a fibrous membrane Endochondral ossification – bone forms by replacing hyaline cartilage Endochondral ossification – bone forms by replacing hyaline cartilage

42. Intramembranous Ossification Formation of most of the flat bones of the skull and the clavicles Formation of most of the flat bones of the skull and the clavicles Fibrous connective tissue membranes are formed by mesenchymal cells Fibrous connective tissue membranes are formed by mesenchymal cells