1. Chapter 4 The Civilization of the Greeks

2. Classical Greece 1. The Greek peninsula is predominantly a land of mountains ranging from 8000 to 10,000 feet that cover two-thirds of the region. Though there are no lofty peaks, the rugged ridges, cliffs, and gorges form natural barriers to intercourse. On the Peloponnesus, which would ultimately be dominated by Sparta, the mountain ranges shut off the east from the west and the northern coast from the southern. The rugged landscape means that plains are few, amounting to less than twenty percent of the land. Most of the plains are found in the river valleys where streams in the winter are usually raging, unnavigable torrents which remove valuable arable land that silts up the mouth making river harbors impossible. In the summer, the rivers usually dry up, transforming the beds into highways for travelers and commerce. The consequence of these geographic factors for the Greeks was a feeling of isolation. This, in turn, contributed to a sense of liberty and independence in the Greek communities. Rivalries, however, led to wars. 2. The compensation for the lack of navigable rivers is a coastline of deep gulfs and natural harbors. Maritime activity was natural since every point in the country has proximity to the sea (in most instances less than fifty miles). The numerous islands of the Aegean Sea permitted sailing to Asia Minor while always staying within sight of land. This enhanced the attraction of the Greeks to the sea. Thus, the Minoans of Crete and the mainland Mycenaeans could navigate the Aegean carrying with them both trade and culture. 3. The bare, rocky land of Greece lent itself to scrub trees and scant vegetation. Mostly stony and arid, the soil required intense labor and was better suited for crops of barley and millet than wheat. Imported grain, therefore, was a necessity. This condition did much to shape politics, particularly in Athens. The lack of sufficient food resources also contributed to the establishment of colonies. 4. In contrast to the Spartan territories of Messenia and Laconia that contained some of the best lands in Greece, the lands of Attica were poor and thin. Nevertheless, Athens was protected from invaders by a semicircle of mountains around Attica through which there were only three passes. The city, with its 300,000 people, sat on a broad, flat plain measuring nine by thirteen miles and was peppered with small farms. The high-quality clay found here served to create a pottery industry, providing Athens with one of its primary exports. In southern Attica were found deposits of lead, copper, and silver. 5. The zenith of the Minoan civilization on Crete was between 2000 and 1450 B.C.E. and featured an elaborate palace complex at Knossus that centered on a courtyard surrounded by private living rooms for the royal family as well as workshops and storerooms. About 1450 B.C.E. the Minoan civilization collapsed, perhaps due to a volcanic eruption on the island of Thera or an invasion of the Mycenaeans. The war-like Mycenaean society consisted of complexes at Mycenae, Pylos, Thebes, and Orchomenos. It was the Mycenaean king Agamemnon who attacked Troy about 1250 B.C.E. Questions: 1. What impact did geography have on developing Greek values? 2. What effect did geography have upon the development of Athens? 3. How does geography contribute to the structure of Sparta? Classical Greece 1. The Greek peninsula is predominantly a land of mountains ranging from 8000 to 10,000 feet that cover two-thirds of the region. Though there are no lofty peaks, the rugged ridges, cliffs, and gorges form natural barriers to intercourse. On the Peloponnesus, which would ultimately be dominated by Sparta, the mountain ranges shut off the east from the west and the northern coast from the southern. The rugged landscape means that plains are few, amounting to less than twenty percent of the land. Most of the plains are found in the river valleys where streams in the winter are usually raging, unnavigable torrents which remove valuable arable land that silts up the mouth making river harbors impossible. In the summer, the rivers usually dry up, transforming the beds into highways for travelers and commerce. The consequence of these geographic factors for the Greeks was a feeling of isolation. This, in turn, contributed to a sense of liberty and independence in the Greek communities. Rivalries, however, led to wars. 2. The compensation for the lack of navigable rivers is a coastline of deep gulfs and natural harbors. Maritime activity was natural since every point in the country has proximity to the sea (in most instances less than fifty miles). The numerous islands of the Aegean Sea permitted sailing to Asia Minor while always staying within sight of land. This enhanced the attraction of the Greeks to the sea. Thus, the Minoans of Crete and the mainland Mycenaeans could navigate the Aegean carrying with them both trade and culture. 3. The bare, rocky land of Greece lent itself to scrub trees and scant vegetation. Mostly stony and arid, the soil required intense labor and was better suited for crops of barley and millet than wheat. Imported grain, therefore, was a necessity. This condition did much to shape politics, particularly in Athens. The lack of sufficient food resources also contributed to the establishment of colonies. 4. In contrast to the Spartan territories of Messenia and Laconia that contained some of the best lands in Greece, the lands of Attica were poor and thin. Nevertheless, Athens was protected from invaders by a semicircle of mountains around Attica through which there were only three passes. The city, with its 300,000 people, sat on a broad, flat plain measuring nine by thirteen miles and was peppered with small farms. The high-quality clay found here served to create a pottery industry, providing Athens with one of its primary exports. In southern Attica were found deposits of lead, copper, and silver. 5. The zenith of the Minoan civilization on Crete was between 2000 and 1450 B.C.E. and featured an elaborate palace complex at Knossus that centered on a courtyard surrounded by private living rooms for the royal family as well as workshops and storerooms. About 1450 B.C.E. the Minoan civilization collapsed, perhaps due to a volcanic eruption on the island of Thera or an invasion of the Mycenaeans. The war-like Mycenaean society consisted of complexes at Mycenae, Pylos, Thebes, and Orchomenos. It was the Mycenaean king Agamemnon who attacked Troy about 1250 B.C.E. Questions: 1. What impact did geography have on developing Greek values? 2. What effect did geography have upon the development of Athens? 3. How does geography contribute to the structure of Sparta?

3. XEarly Greece äMinoan Crete, 2000-1450 B.C.E. FKnossus äMycenaean Greeks, 1600-1200 B.C.E. FAgememnon FDorians XThe Greek Dark Age (c. 1100-c. 750 B.C.E.) äCollapse of agricultural production äMigration east across the Aegean Sea FIonian Greeks FAeolian Greeks äHomer FIliad FOdyssey

4. XThe Greek City-States (c. 750-c. 500 B.C.E.) äThe Polis FAcropolis and Agora FCitizenship äColonization äRise of typrants äSparta Fhelots FLycurgus äAthens FSolon (c. 640-c. 560 B.C.E.) FPisistratus FCleisthenes

5. The World According to Erathosthenes 1. Eratosthenes (c. 276-c. 194 B.C.E.), born in Cyrene, a Greek town in northern Africa, was a Greek mathematician and geographer who drew a map of the then known world, relying on accounts by mariners, travelers, and his own observations. As the head librarian of the great library at Alexandria established by the Ptolemies, Eratosthenes had access to a wide range of sources. 2. In Geographica, Eratosthenes brought together reports of travelers including voyagers around Britain and to Norway and perhaps the Arctic Circle. He also sought to depict physical features of the lands and the character of the people. Eratosthenes thought many Greeks were scoundrels, Persians and Hindus as refined, and Romans as proficient at social order and competent government. Nevertheless, he knew little of northern Europe, India south of the Ganges River, and nothing of south Africa. He is the first geographer, however, to mention China. Significantly, Eratosthenes declared that only the Atlantic Ocean separated Iberia (Spain) and India. 3. Assuming that the Earth is round and that the sun’s rays are parallel, Eratosthenes calculated that the circumference was about 24,662 miles (the correct figure is 24,847 miles). Question: 1. What does the map of Eratosthenes tell about the knowledge of the world in the third century B.C.E. The World According to Erathosthenes 1. Eratosthenes (c. 276-c. 194 B.C.E.), born in Cyrene, a Greek town in northern Africa, was a Greek mathematician and geographer who drew a map of the then known world, relying on accounts by mariners, travelers, and his own observations. As the head librarian of the great library at Alexandria established by the Ptolemies, Eratosthenes had access to a wide range of sources. 2. In Geographica, Eratosthenes brought together reports of travelers including voyagers around Britain and to Norway and perhaps the Arctic Circle. He also sought to depict physical features of the lands and the character of the people. Eratosthenes thought many Greeks were scoundrels, Persians and Hindus as refined, and Romans as proficient at social order and competent government. Nevertheless, he knew little of northern Europe, India south of the Ganges River, and nothing of south Africa. He is the first geographer, however, to mention China. Significantly, Eratosthenes declared that only the Atlantic Ocean separated Iberia (Spain) and India. 3. Assuming that the Earth is round and that the sun’s rays are parallel, Eratosthenes calculated that the circumference was about 24,662 miles (the correct figure is 24,847 miles). Question: 1. What does the map of Eratosthenes tell about the knowledge of the world in the third century B.C.E.

6. XClassical Greece äPersian War FDarius (522-486 B.C.E.) m Battle of Marathon, 490 B.C.E. FXerxes (486-465 B.C.E.) m Invasion of Greece, 480-479 B.C.E. m Battle of Thermopylae, 480 B.C.E. m Battle of Salamis, 480 B.C.E. m Battle of Plataea, 479 B.C.E. äDelian League äPericles äPeloponnesian War, 431-404 B.C.E. FBattle of Aegospotami, 405 B.C.E.

7. XCulture of Classical Greece äHistory FHerodotus (c. 484-c. 425 B.C.E.) FThucydides (c. 460-c. 400 B.C.E) äDrama FTragedy m Nature of good and evil m Conflict between values and state and family m Rights of the individual m Nature of divine forces m Nature of human beings FComedy m Aristophanes (c. 450-c. 385 B.C.E.)

8. äThe Arts FArchitecture FSculpture äPhilosophy FSophists FSocrates (469-399 B.C.E.) FPlato (c. 429-347 B.C.E.) FAristotle (384-322 B.C.E.) äReligion äDaily life Fslavery Fwomen Fhomosexuality

9. Alexander’s Empire and the Successor Kingdoms 1. Alexander's army of 37,000 and cavalry of 5,000 had little trouble with the Persians at the battles of Granicus River in 334 B.C.E. and Issus in 333 B.C.E. Before pursuing Darius III (336-330 B.C.), Alexander had to gain the Syrian coast and Egypt in order to cut off the Persian navy from its ports and secure his rear from disloyal elements in Greece. The most strategic point was the port of Tyre. Although it was well fortified, the city fell after a siege of seven months. Tyre was then re-colonized and became the center of Alexander's control of the Syrian coast. 2. Alexander's dream of Hellenization found realization in the creation of Alexandria in Egypt as the center of Greek commerce and culture. The city was built on a narrow spit of land between a lake and the sea. The lake harbor connected with the Nile while the Mediterranean port was protected from the sea by an island. The city was thus a link between the valley of the Nile and the Mediterranean. Moreover, a canal previously built by the Egyptians connecting the Nile and the Red Sea provided access to the trade of Arabia and the Far East. As a crossroad, the population of Alexandria blossomed and by the first century B.C.E. the city had half a million inhabitants. 4. According to legend, at Siwah the oracle of Zeus-Amon addressed Alexander as "son of Amon", thereby suggesting his divine status. 5. Darius chose to meet Alexander at a wide plain on the left bank of the Tigris River. Coming from Tyre, Alexander’s army met that of Darius at Gaugamela in 331 B.C.E. The army of Darius was defeated and the Persian king fled the field. Alexander proclaimed himself the king of Asia. At Persepolis, the third great capital of the Persian Empire (Babylon and Susa the other two), Alexander passed the winter of 331-330 B.C.E. According to Plutarch, the booty taken here loaded 10,000 mules and 5,000 camels. The city was burned in revenge for the aggression of Xerxes against Greece in the sixth century B.C.E. 6. Entering India in 326 B.C.E., Alexander met a formidable army at the Hydaspes River. Emerging victorious, he founded the new city of Bucephala named in honor of his beloved horse that had died. The circuit of the Persian Empire, however, was now completed as Alexander's troops rebelled at going on any further. They had been away eight and a half long years and had traveled 11,000 miles. Reluctantly, Alexander acceded and the force struck out from the Indus to the mouth of the Persian Gulf across the bleak coast of the Gedrosian Desert. The journey cost nearly half his force of 30,000 men. Alexander then proceeded to Persepolis and then to Babylon where he died of a fever in 323 B.C.E. at the age of thirty-two. The following decades, Alexander’s generals divided his lands among themselves. Three Hellenistic kingdoms emerged: Egypt, the Ptolemaic Kingdom, ruled by Ptolemy and his successors; Asia, comprising most of the remaining provinces of the Persian Empire, became the Seleucid Kingdom founded by Seleucus; and Macedonia and Greece, the Antigonid Kingdom, ruled by the descendants of Antigonus. 9. Estimates are that Alexander summoned 60,000 to 65,000 additional mercenaries from Greece during his conquests. At least 36,000 became residents of the garrisons and new cities, thereby serving as agents for the diffusion of Greek culture. 10. Unlike the other Hellenistic kings, the Ptolemies in Egypt were not city builders and made little effort to spread Greek culture. In the second century B.C.E. the Greeks and Egyptians began to intermarry with each adopting the language and customs of the other thereby creating a Greco- Egyptian culture. The far ranging Seleucid Kingdom, on the other hand, established many cities and military colonies. Although the Seleucids had no apparent plan for Hellenizing the population, the arrival of so many Greeks must have had an impact. Especially important in the Hellenizing process were the military colonies located near native villages. Questions: 1. How did Greek ideas penetrate the East? 2. How did cities act as a catalyst for the Hellenistic Age? Alexander’s Empire and the Successor Kingdoms 1. Alexander's army of 37,000 and cavalry of 5,000 had little trouble with the Persians at the battles of Granicus River in 334 B.C.E. and Issus in 333 B.C.E. Before pursuing Darius III (336-330 B.C.), Alexander had to gain the Syrian coast and Egypt in order to cut off the Persian navy from its ports and secure his rear from disloyal elements in Greece. The most strategic point was the port of Tyre. Although it was well fortified, the city fell after a siege of seven months. Tyre was then re-colonized and became the center of Alexander's control of the Syrian coast. 2. Alexander's dream of Hellenization found realization in the creation of Alexandria in Egypt as the center of Greek commerce and culture. The city was built on a narrow spit of land between a lake and the sea. The lake harbor connected with the Nile while the Mediterranean port was protected from the sea by an island. The city was thus a link between the valley of the Nile and the Mediterranean. Moreover, a canal previously built by the Egyptians connecting the Nile and the Red Sea provided access to the trade of Arabia and the Far East. As a crossroad, the population of Alexandria blossomed and by the first century B.C.E. the city had half a million inhabitants. 4. According to legend, at Siwah the oracle of Zeus-Amon addressed Alexander as "son of Amon", thereby suggesting his divine status. 5. Darius chose to meet Alexander at a wide plain on the left bank of the Tigris River. Coming from Tyre, Alexander’s army met that of Darius at Gaugamela in 331 B.C.E. The army of Darius was defeated and the Persian king fled the field. Alexander proclaimed himself the king of Asia. At Persepolis, the third great capital of the Persian Empire (Babylon and Susa the other two), Alexander passed the winter of 331-330 B.C.E. According to Plutarch, the booty taken here loaded 10,000 mules and 5,000 camels. The city was burned in revenge for the aggression of Xerxes against Greece in the sixth century B.C.E. 6. Entering India in 326 B.C.E., Alexander met a formidable army at the Hydaspes River. Emerging victorious, he founded the new city of Bucephala named in honor of his beloved horse that had died. The circuit of the Persian Empire, however, was now completed as Alexander's troops rebelled at going on any further. They had been away eight and a half long years and had traveled 11,000 miles. Reluctantly, Alexander acceded and the force struck out from the Indus to the mouth of the Persian Gulf across the bleak coast of the Gedrosian Desert. The journey cost nearly half his force of 30,000 men. Alexander then proceeded to Persepolis and then to Babylon where he died of a fever in 323 B.C.E. at the age of thirty-two. The following decades, Alexander’s generals divided his lands among themselves. Three Hellenistic kingdoms emerged: Egypt, the Ptolemaic Kingdom, ruled by Ptolemy and his successors; Asia, comprising most of the remaining provinces of the Persian Empire, became the Seleucid Kingdom founded by Seleucus; and Macedonia and Greece, the Antigonid Kingdom, ruled by the descendants of Antigonus. 9. Estimates are that Alexander summoned 60,000 to 65,000 additional mercenaries from Greece during his conquests. At least 36,000 became residents of the garrisons and new cities, thereby serving as agents for the diffusion of Greek culture. 10. Unlike the other Hellenistic kings, the Ptolemies in Egypt were not city builders and made little effort to spread Greek culture. In the second century B.C.E. the Greeks and Egyptians began to intermarry with each adopting the language and customs of the other thereby creating a Greco- Egyptian culture. The far ranging Seleucid Kingdom, on the other hand, established many cities and military colonies. Although the Seleucids had no apparent plan for Hellenizing the population, the arrival of so many Greeks must have had an impact. Especially important in the Hellenizing process were the military colonies located near native villages. Questions: 1. How did Greek ideas penetrate the East? 2. How did cities act as a catalyst for the Hellenistic Age?

10. XRise of Macedonia äPhilip II (359-336 B.C.E.) äDemosthenes äAlexander the Great (336-323 B.C.E.) FAttacks the Persian Empire m Battle of Granicus River, 334 B.C.E. m Battle of Issus, 333 B.C.E. m Battle of Gaugamela, 331 B.C.E. m Persepolis, 330 B.C.E. m Alexander in India, 327 B.C.E. m Death of Alexander, 323 B.C.E.

11. The World of the Hellenistic Monarchs 1. Unlike the other Hellenistic kings, the Ptolemies in Egypt were not city builders and made little effort to spread Greek culture. In the second century B.C. the Greeks and Egyptians began to intermarry with each adopting the language and customs of the other thereby creating a Greco- Egyptian culture. 2. In order to attract Greeks, the far ranging Selucid Empire established many cities and military colonies in Mesopotamia. Although the Selucids had no apparent plan for Hellenizing the population, the arrival of so many Greeks must have had an impact. Especially important in the Hellenizing process had to be the military colonies located near native villages. 3. The great wealth Alexander found in the Persian capitals was used to finance the creation of new cities, building roads, and modernizing harbors. 4. Contact with India by sea was established by the Ptolemies who learned to utilize the monsoon winds. This route further stimulated the exchange of ideas and goods. The commerce came by sea into the Persian Gulf, up the Tigris to Seleucia. From Seleucia, the trade would move by caravan to Antioch and Ephesus on the west coast of Asia Minor. By land, the trip from the Indus to Seleucia took forty days and from Seleucia to the Mediterranean another fifteen. The longer alternate southern route wound its way by sea along the coast from India, around Arabia, and up the Red Sea. Goods would be transferred by caravan to the Nile and floated down to Alexandria and the Mediterranean. 5. The Hellenistic Age marked a shift in the center of eastern Mediterranean trade from Athens to Corinth and the new cities of Egypt and Asia. The Black Sea's commercial importance was reduced due to the Gallic and Scythian invasions. 6. The despotism of Hellenistic kingdoms was countered by a city-state federalism established by the Aetolian League (stretching across central Greece and parts of the Peloponnesus) and the Aechean League (including much of the Peloponnesus). These confederations were national unions in the modern sense. Questions: 1. After the breakup of Alexander's empire, how did the new kingdoms approach their political organization? How was it different from the polis? 2. How did trade contribute to the development of the Hellenistic Age? The World of the Hellenistic Monarchs 1. Unlike the other Hellenistic kings, the Ptolemies in Egypt were not city builders and made little effort to spread Greek culture. In the second century B.C. the Greeks and Egyptians began to intermarry with each adopting the language and customs of the other thereby creating a Greco- Egyptian culture. 2. In order to attract Greeks, the far ranging Selucid Empire established many cities and military colonies in Mesopotamia. Although the Selucids had no apparent plan for Hellenizing the population, the arrival of so many Greeks must have had an impact. Especially important in the Hellenizing process had to be the military colonies located near native villages. 3. The great wealth Alexander found in the Persian capitals was used to finance the creation of new cities, building roads, and modernizing harbors. 4. Contact with India by sea was established by the Ptolemies who learned to utilize the monsoon winds. This route further stimulated the exchange of ideas and goods. The commerce came by sea into the Persian Gulf, up the Tigris to Seleucia. From Seleucia, the trade would move by caravan to Antioch and Ephesus on the west coast of Asia Minor. By land, the trip from the Indus to Seleucia took forty days and from Seleucia to the Mediterranean another fifteen. The longer alternate southern route wound its way by sea along the coast from India, around Arabia, and up the Red Sea. Goods would be transferred by caravan to the Nile and floated down to Alexandria and the Mediterranean. 5. The Hellenistic Age marked a shift in the center of eastern Mediterranean trade from Athens to Corinth and the new cities of Egypt and Asia. The Black Sea's commercial importance was reduced due to the Gallic and Scythian invasions. 6. The despotism of Hellenistic kingdoms was countered by a city-state federalism established by the Aetolian League (stretching across central Greece and parts of the Peloponnesus) and the Aechean League (including much of the Peloponnesus). These confederations were national unions in the modern sense. Questions: 1. After the breakup of Alexander's empire, how did the new kingdoms approach their political organization? How was it different from the polis? 2. How did trade contribute to the development of the Hellenistic Age?

12. XThe Hellenistic Kingdoms äNew dynasties created äHellenizing an urban phenomenon äEconomic and social trends äLiterature and Art FLibrary of Alexandria FMenander (c. 342-291 B.C.E.) FPolybius (c. 203-c 120 B.C.E.) äScience FArchimedes (287-212 B.C.E.) äPhilosophy F Epicurus (341-270 B.C.E.) F Zeno (335-263 B.C.E.) äReligion