1. Memory

2. Goal  How do we encode information for memory?
Learning Target: Describe memory in terms of information processing, and explain the encoding process.

3. The Memory Process Three step process….
Encoding: The processing of information into the memory system.
Storage: The retention of encoded material over time.
Retrieval: The process of getting the information out of memory storage.

4. Three Box Model of Memory

5. Info-Processing Automatic Effortful
Parallel processing (brain does many things at once)
Remembering space, time, frequency, well-learned info
Effortful
Rehearsal/repetition

6. Encoding Process
Encoding
Effortful
Automatic

7. Ebbinghaus Ebbinghaus used nonsense syllables
TUV ZOF GEK WAV
the more times practiced on Day 1, the fewer repetitions to relearn on Day 2
Spacing effect – memory is better for info learned over time
Ebbinghaus’ Forgetting Curve

8. Encoding Information Serial Position Effect =
Primacy Effect – better remember items earliest in a series
Recency Effect – better memory for items at the end of a series

9. The ways we can encode…
Visual Encoding: the encoding of picture images.
Acoustic Encoding: the encoding of sound, especially the sounds of words.
Semantic Encoding: the encoding of meaning.

11. Encoding Imagery Mnemonics mental pictures
a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding
Mnemonics
memory aids
especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
Acronyms
Method of Loci
Peg-word system

12. Encoding Chunking organizing items into familiar, manageable units
like horizontal organization
often occurs automatically
use of acronyms
HOMES--Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior
ARITHMETIC--A Rat In Tom’s House Might Eat Tom’s Ice Cream

13. Encoding: Chunking
Organized information is more easily recalled

14. Encoding Hierarchies (Semantic Networks)
complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories
Encoding
(automatic
or effortful)
Imagery
(visual
Encoding)
Meaning
(semantic
Organization
Chunks
Hierarchies

15. Goal Describe memory in terms of information processing, and distinguish among sensory, short-term, and long-term memory.

16. Storage: Sensory Memory
Iconic memory
Brief sensory memory of images (tenths of a second)
Echoic memory
Brief sensory memory of sounds (2-4 secs)

17. Storage: Short-Term (STM)/ Working Memory
Limited duration & capacity
Magical number (7+/-2 items)
Events are encoded visually, acoustically or semantically.
We recall digits better than letters. 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 3 6 9 12 15 18
Time in seconds between presentation
of contestants and recall request
(no rehearsal allowed)
Percentage
who recalled
consonants

18. Storage: Long-Term Memory (LTM)
How does storage work?
Karl Lashley (1950)
rats learned maze, lesioned cortexes, retested memory  still partial memory
Synaptic changes
Long-term Potentiation
increase in synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation

19. Storage: Long-Term Memory (LTM)
Strong emotions make for stronger memories = FLASHBULB MEMORIES
- Not necessarily more accurate
Mood-congruent memory  remember when in same mood as learned/rehearsed
State-dependent memory  remember when in same conscious state as learned/ rehearsed

20. Storage: Long-Term Memory Subsystems
Types of
long-term
memories
Explicit
(declarative)
With conscious
recall
Implicit
(nondeclarative)
Without conscious
Facts-general
knowledge
(“semantic
memory”)
Personally
experienced
events
(“episodic
Skills-motor
and cognitive
Dispositions-
classical and
operant
conditioning
effects

21. Storage: Long-Term Memory
MRI scan of hippocampus (in red)
Hippocampus

23. Retrieval Recall v. recognition tasks
Relearning - how much less time it takes to learn material the second time
Priming - activation of unconscious associations in memory

24. Retrieval: Context Effects
Godden and Baddeley (1975) 10 20 30 40
Water/
land
Land/
water
Different contexts for
hearing and recall
Same contexts for hearing and recall
Percentage of
words recalled

25. Retrieval: Context & Mood
Déjà Vu (French)-”already seen”
cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience
Mood-congruent memory
State-dependent memory

27. What is the color of the top stripe of the American flag?
Most wooden pencils are not round. How many sides do they typically have?
In what hand does the Statue of Liberty hold her torch?
The White House is pictured on the back of a $20 bill. What is the on the back of a $10 bill? $5 bill? $1 bill?
What four words besides “In God We Trust” appear on most U.S. coins?

28. Forgetting: Encoding Failure
Info never gets to LTM (not attended to or rehearsed)
External
events
Sensory
memory
Short-
term
Long-
Attention
Encoding
failure leads
to forgetting

29. Forgetting: Storage Decay1 2 3 4 5 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 60
Time in days since learning list
Percentage of
list retained
when
relearning
Ebbinghaus forgetting curve over 30 days-- initially rapid, then levels off with time

30. Forgetting: Storage Decay
The forgetting curve for Spanish learned in school
Retention
drops,
then levels off
½ 14½ ½ ½
Time in years after completion of Spanish course
100% 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10
Percentage of
original
vocabulary
retained

31. Forgetting: Retrieval Failure
Forgetting can result from failure to retrieve information from long-term memory
External
events
Attention
Encoding
Retrieval failure
leads to forgetting
Retrieval
Sensory
memory
Short-term
Long-term

32. Forgetting: Interference
Proactive (forward-acting) interference  old info disrupts memory of new info
Retroactive (backward-acting) interference  new info disrupts memory of old info

33. Forgetting Forgetting can occur at any memory stage
As we process information, we filter, alter, or lose much of it
Repression?

34. Forgetting- Interference
Motivated Forgetting (retrieval failure)
people unknowingly revise memories
Repression
defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

35. Amnesia
Infantile amnesia: difficult to remember vivid memories from before ages 2-3
Dissociative amnesia: inability to remember info due to psychological trauma

36. Amnesia Retrograde amnesia: inability to remember info before a trauma
Anterograde amnesia: inability to remember info after a trauma

37. What kind of forgetting?
Ellen can’t recall the reasons for the Webster-Ashburton Treaty because she was daydreaming in class the day it was discussed.
Encoding failure
Rufus hates his job at Taco Heaven and is always forgetting when he is schedule to work.
Retrieval failure (motivated forgetting)

38. What kind of forgetting?
Ray’s new assistant in the shipping department is named Jason Timberlake. Ray keeps calling him Justin, mixing him up with the singer Justin Timberlake.
Proactive interference
Tania studied history on Sunday morning and sociology on Sunday evening. It’s Monday, and she’s struggling with her history test because she keeps mixing up prominent historians with influential sociologists.
Retroactive interference

39. What kind of forgetting?
Mark was in a near fatal car accident on his way to work. At the hospital, he cannot remember what he was doing that morning up until the accident (stopping for coffee, calling his wife), but still can form new memories.
Retrograde amnesia
Ally was sexually assaulted, and when reporting the event has trouble remembering what happened after the assault (where she went, who she spoke to).
Anterograde amnesia

40. Memory Construction We filter information and fill in missing pieces
Misinformation Effect
incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event
Source Amnesia
attributing to the wrong source an event that we experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined (misattribution)

41. Memory Construction Eyewitnesses reconstruct memories when questioned
Depiction of actual accident
Leading question:
“About how fast were the cars
going when they smashed into
each other?”
Memory
construction
Eyewitnesses reconstruct memories when questioned

42. Memory Construction Memories of Abuse False Memory Syndrome
Repressed or Constructed?
Child sexual abuse does occur
Some adults do actually forget such episodes
False Memory Syndrome
condition in which a person’s identity and relationships center around a false but strongly believed memory of traumatic experience
sometimes induced by well-meaning therapists

43. Memory Construction Most people can agree on the following:
Injustice happens
Incest happens
Forgetting happens
Recovered memories are commonplace
Memories recovered under hypnosis or drugs are especially unreliable
Memories of things happening before age 3 are unreliable
Memories, whether false or real, are upsetting

44. Improve Your Memory Study repeatedly to boost recall
Spend more time rehearsing or actively thinking about the material
Make material personally meaningful
Use mnemonic devices
associate with peg words--something already stored
make up story
chunk--acronyms

45. Improve Your Memory
Activate retrieval cues--mentally recreate situation and mood
Recall events while they are fresh-- before you encounter misinformation
Minimize interference
Test your own knowledge
rehearse
determine what you do not yet know