1. HOW PSYCHOLOGISTS STUDY CULTURE Schools and Approaches PSYC 338

2. QUESTIONS FOR PSYCHOLOGISTS What is universal about human beings? What are characteristic features of a certain group of people, e.g. cultural groups? What makes the individual unique? ? ? ? ? ? ?

3. Universalism Cultural differences can be neglected as the commonalities among human beings outweigh them. Basic psychological processes are common to all members of the species. They constitute a set of psychological givens in all human beings. Cultural Relativism (Boas, 1939) The development of human personality is mainly influenced by our environment. All human behavior is culturally patterned. It seeks to avoid “ethnocentrism” by trying to understand people in their own terms. Ethnocentrism (Sumner, 1906) A strong tendency to use one’s own group’s standards as the standard when viewing other groups, to place one’s group at the top of a hierarchy and to rank all others as lower.

4. SCHOOLS AND APPROACHES * Classical Culture-and-Personality Approach * Cross-cultural Research in Psychological Anthropology * Social Structures and Personality * Cognitive Anthropology * Psycho-cultural Studies of Emotion * Evolution-oriented Psychological Anthropology

5. Culture-and-Personality Approach As a basis for cultural anthropology this approach assumes that culture is an important determinant of personality. - combines theories and methods from anthropolgy, psychology and sociology - was strongly influenced by psychoanalysis - is occupied with habits, rituals and institutions of a culture - looks for cultural patterns as a relatively constant pattern of thoughts and actions Repr.: Ruth Benedict, Margaret Mead, Branislaw Malinowski

6. Ethnographic Fieldwork “to grasp the native’s point of view, his relations to life, to realize his vision of his world” (Malinowski, 1922, p. 25) - to try to understand and describe the world as the people themselves understand it. - to know what objects mean to the members of that community - to learn what the object is “in the eyes of the beholder depending on the experiences of the beholder – the things he has learned.” (Goodenough, 1981, p. 51)

7. Psychological Anthropology Tries to measure observable behaviour - interdisciplinary co-operations and extensive fieldwork - comparative studies of children’s education Repr.: John and Beatrice Whiting and Child as founders of “Cross-cultural School”

8. THREE MAJOR APPROACHES IN PSYCHOLOGY * Cross-cultural Psychology * Cultural Psychology * Indigenous Psychology

9. CROSS-CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY is concerned with the systematic study of behaviour and experience - as it occurs in different cultures - is influenced by culture and - results in changes in existing cultures asks for universal principles of human behaviour by systematically comparing cultures as well as cultural specific determinants of behaviour.

10. Goals 1.To test generality and limits of existing psychological knowledge and theories 2.To explore other cultures in order to discover cultural and psychological variations which are not present in our own limited cultural experience 3.To generate a psychology that will be valid for a broader range of cultures Cross-cultural psychology -Views culture (or dimensions of culture) as an IV -Offers a wider range of variability -Uses emic and etic approaches

11. ETICS * Culture general * Universal * Control exerted by researcher * Culture as IV * Several cultures compared * Over-arching framework

12. EMICS * Culture specific * Limited * Structure uncovered rather than imposed * Understood in culture’s own terms

13. STEPS IN MAKING COMPARISONS (Campbell, 1970) Study 1: Study a phenomenon in culture A (emic)! Study 2: Study to culture B (etic)! Consider validity of comparison! Study 3: Researcher from culture B studies his own culture. Study 4: Second researcher studies culture A.  Cost, time and effort

14. CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY is the study of the ways subject and object, self and other, psyche and culture, person and context, figure and ground, practitioner and practice live together, require each other, and dynamically, dialectically, and jointly make up each other Shweder, 1990

15. Cultural Psychology Basic assumptions: 1.Explanations of behaviour are based on the individual. 2.There is neither a cultural nor a psychological determinism. 3.Culture and psychology influence each other. 4.There are cultural diverse psychologies. 5.The significance of language and interaction Wilhelm Wundt, Ernst Boesch, Bruner, Cole

16. NATURE, GOALS, ASSUMPTIONS * Culture as way of knowing- “inside person” * Culture and behaviour inseparable * Views person in context * Processes uncovered * Methods derived from folkways * Qualitative approaches

17. NATURE, GOALS, ASSUMPTIONS * Developmental, longitudinal, historical * Culture specific * Cultural pluralism

18. INDIGENOUS PSYCHOLOGY A system of psychological thought and practice that is rooted in a particular cultural tradition.

19. NATURE, GOALS, ASSUMPTIONS * Indigenous constructs, theories, methods * Culture specific * Deals with issues, constructs important in that culture, often applied * For and by indigenous people

20. QUESTIONS * Which psychology is most comprehensive? * Who can do the three psychologies? * Which perspective do you prefer?