1. 1 Summary of Trait Studies Hindered by methodological problems Problem connecting abstract trait and how it “shows up in behavior” Can’t examined traits one-at a-time If traits matter, it is probably a constellation of interacting traits which can’t be reduced to single traits, thus very difficult to study.

2. 2 Status of Trait Approach; an Example of the Fundamental Leadership Attribution Error Massive research failed to find traits that guarantee leadership success A major reason: lack of attention to intervening variables in the causal chain: Traits Intervening Variables, e.g. Situation Outcomes

3. 3 Shifts in Research Focus From “What are the traits?” 1940’s to “What do leaders do? 1950s to “What do effective leaders do? 1950-60s to “What are the contingencies of effectiveness?” 1960s

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5. 5 Summary of Leadership Styles Research: The Two Clusters of Behavior: Task and People Autocratic Initiating Structure Job Center Task Centered Concern for People Task Oriented Directive Behavior Manager Makes Decision Participative Consideration Employee Centered People Centered Concern for Productivity Relationship Centered Supportive Behavior Group Makes the Decision Task People

6. 6 A Personality Theory by McClelland Acquired over time and shaped by one's life experiences Affiliation Those with a high need for affiliation need harmonious relationships with other people and need to feel accepted by other people. They tend to conform to the norms of their work group. High nAff individuals prefer work that provides significant personal interaction. Power A person's need for power can be one of two types - personal and institutional. Those who need personal power want to direct others, and this need often is perceived as undesirable. Persons who need institutional power (also known as social power) want to organize the efforts of others to further the goals of the organization. Achievement People with a high need for achievement seek to excel and thus tend to avoid both low-risk and high-risk situations. Achievers avoid low-risk situations because the easily attained success is not a genuine achievement. In high-risk projects, achievers see the outcome as one of chance rather than one's own effort. High nAch individuals prefer work that has a moderate probability of success, and need regular feedback in order to monitor the progress of their achievements.

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8. 8 1 1 9 9 Task-Centered Leadership People-Centered Leadership 9, 9 Team Manager, 9 Authoritarian Manager 1, 9 Authoritarian Manager 5, 5 Bureaucratic Manager 5, 5 Bureaucratic Manager 9, 1 Country Club Manager 1, 1 Impoverished Manager 1, 1 Impoverished Manager Blake & Mouton’s Managerial Grid Blake & Mouton’s Managerial Grid

9. 9 Task behaviors (direct behavior) Relationship behavior (amount of support required) Low High Participating Delegating Selling Telling Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Theory

10. 10 Situational Leadership II® and SLII are the registered trademarks of The Ken Blanchard Companies. The Contingencies

11. 11 Paul Hersey and Ken Blanchard Leadership style you choose is dependent on a number of situational factors. Directing: the leader provides clear instructions and closely supervises the work of the follower(s); Selling: the leader explains decisions and provides opportunities for clarity and buy-in through negotiating, influencing and consulting with follower(s); Participating: the leader provides support and facilitates problem solving and decision making through a joint approach, to support and develop the followers' confidence in their abilities; Delegating: the leader turns over responsibility for task implementation to the follower. The style the leader chooses, depends on the level of readiness of the follower. This readiness is composed of two dimensions: Willingness to perform the task (psychological readiness or motivation); Ability to perform the task (knowledge, skills and availability of resources). http://www.situational.com/

12. 12 Vroom-Jago Leadership Model Assumptions (continued)  The leadership style used in one situation should not constrain the styles used in other situations.  Several social processes influence the amount of participation by subordinates in problem solving.

13. 13 Vroom-Jago Leadership Model: An Example of Contingent Leadership Theory Assumptions  The model should be of value to managers in determining which leadership styles they should use in various situations.  No single style is applicable to all situations.  The main focus should be the problem to be solved and the situation in which the problem occurs.

14. 14 Vroom-Jago Leadership Model Features of the Model  Selection of the appropriate decision making process involves considering two criteria of decision effectiveness: Decision quality - referring to the extent to which the decision impacts job performance. Subordinate commitment - refers to how important it is that the subordinate be committed to or accept the decision in order that it may be successfully implemented.

15. 15 Vroom-Jago Leadership Model Features of the Model Five Different Decision Styles 1. Decide  You make the decision alone and either announce or “sell” it to the group. You may use your expertise in collecting information that you deem relevant to the problem from the group or others. 2. Consult Individually  You present the problem to the group members individually, get their suggestions, and then make the decision. 3. Consult Group  You present the problem to the group members, in a meeting, get their suggestions, and then make the decision.

16. 16 4. Facilitate  You present the problem to the group in a meeting. You act as facilitator, defining the problem to be solved and the boundaries within which the decision must be made. Your objective is to get concurrence on a deci­ sion. Above all, you take care to ensure that your ideas are not given any greater weight than those of others simply because of your position. 5. Delegate  You permit the group to make the decision within prescribed lim­its. The group undertakes the identification and diagnosis of the problem, developing alternative procedures for solving it, and deciding on one or more alternative solu­tions. While you play no direct role in the group's deliberations unless explicitly asked, your role is an important one behind the scenes, providing needed resources and encouragement.

17. 17 Diagnostic Questions It poses diagnostic questions for managers to ask about a decision. A. Decision Significance-How significant is the decision to the success of the project or organization? B. Importance of Commitment-How important is the team members' commitment to the decision? C. Leader's Expertise-Does the leader (you) possess the knowledge or expertise related to this problem? D. Likelihood of Commitment-If you were to make the decision yourself, what is the likelihood that the team would commit itself to the decision? E. Group Support for Objectives-To what degree does the team support the organization's objectives at stake in this problem? F. Group Expertise-Do team members' possess the knowledge or expertise related to this problem? G. Team Competence-Do team members have the ability to work together in solving problems?

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19. 19 Summary Examples of Contingencies Studied Quality of leader-member relations. Willingness of follower to perform the task (psychological readiness or motivation). Ability of follower to perform the task (knowledge, skills and availability of resources). Quality Requirement: One best way to make decision/do the job? Does leader have enough information about the problem? Is acceptance of the decision by subordinates important? Task Structure: little/lot Position power of leader: Strong/ weak Do subordinates share goals? Is conflict among subordinate probable?