1. 1 EMISSION OF URBAN TRANSPORT JOHN TRIANDAFYLLIS PROFESSOR IP: ENERGY EFFICIENT AND ECOLOGICAL URBAN TRANSPORT OF THE FUTURE 3-16 April 2011 Alexander Technological Educational Institute of Thessaloniki, P.O. Box 141, GR – 57400, GREECE P.O. Box 141, GR – 57400, GREECE e-mail: jtriand@vt.teithe.gr

2. Alexander Technological Institute of Thessaloniki 2 EMISSION SOURCES  Emission from urban transport occurs while the automobile or train or lawnmower or recreational boat or motorcycle 1.is moving through the traffic [from Combustion products] 2.is stationary (parked) [through fuel evaporation and fuel leaks]  Emission from the inside environment of the vehicle  Emission in the city air/ground/water from fuel leaks from the fuel storage tanks.  Emission in the work environment 1.Related to occupation (traffic police, license examiners, operators of heavy equipment, bus drivers, train personnel) 2.Related to work area (garages, fuel stations)

3. Alexander Technological Institute of Thessaloniki 3 Emission products  Regulated Combustion products CO, HC, NO x, Particulate Matter  Unregulated Combustion Products CO 2, O 3, PAH, BTEX  Noise [it is not a combustion product but occurs during combustion]

4. EMISSION STANDARDS Alexander Technological Institute of Thessaloniki 4

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7. CO EMISSION STANDARD Alexander Technological Institute of Thessaloniki 7

8. HC EMISSION STANDARD Alexander Technological Institute of Thessaloniki 8

9. PM EMISSION STANDARD Alexander Technological Institute of Thessaloniki 9

10. CO EMISSION  A product of incomplete combustion, especially in cold weather.  In urban areas, the motor vehicle contribution to CO pollution is over 90%.  It is colorless, odorless and poisonous. It enters the bloodstream through the lungs and inhibits the blood’s capacity to carry oxygen to organs and tissues. Alexander Technological Institute of Thessaloniki 10

11. CO EMISSION Alexander Technological Institute of Thessaloniki 11

12. CO EMISSION BY SOURCE Alexander Technological Institute of Thessaloniki 12

13. CO EMISSION BY SOURCE  On-road mobileNon-road mobile Alexander Technological Institute of Thessaloniki 13

14. CO EMISSION  To reduce it:  Annual maintenance inspections.  On-board warning devices about the car’s emission control systems.  Oxygenated fuel during the winter months. Alexander Technological Institute of Thessaloniki 14

15. HC EMISSION  A product of incomplete combustion and fuel evaporation.  A key component of smog, ground-level ozone is formed by reactions of HC and NO x in the presence of sunlight.  Some HC are considered toxic, causing cancer. Alexander Technological Institute of Thessaloniki 15

16. HC EMISSION BY SOURCE Alexander Technological Institute of Thessaloniki 16

17. HC EMISSION BY SOURCE  On-road mobileNon-road mobile Alexander Technological Institute of Thessaloniki 17

18. NO X EMISSION  It is produced when fuel burns at high temperatures.  A key component of smog, ground-level ozone is formed by reactions of HC and NO x in the presence of sunlight.  They can travel long distances from their sources.  They contribute to the formation of PM through chemical reactions in the atmosphere. Alexander Technological Institute of Thessaloniki 18

19. NO X EMISSION BY SOURCE Alexander Technological Institute of Thessaloniki 19

20. NO X EMISSION BY SOURCE  On-road mobileNon-road mobile Alexander Technological Institute of Thessaloniki 20

21. PM EMISSION  Both on-road and non-road mobile sources emit fine particulate matter.  Diesel-powered vehicles and engines contribute more than half the mobile source particulate emissions.  They can travel long distances from their sources.  Health effects include asthma, difficult or painful breathing, and chronic bronchitis, especially in children and the elderly. Fine particulate matter associated with diesel exhaust is also thought to cause lung cancer. Alexander Technological Institute of Thessaloniki 21

22. PM EMISSION BY SOURCE Alexander Technological Institute of Thessaloniki 22

23. PM EMISSION BY SOURCE  On-road mobileNon-road mobile Alexander Technological Institute of Thessaloniki 23

24. PM EMISSION  There are primary PM 10 particles emitted directly in the atmosphere and there are secondary PM 10 particles which are formed as a result of photochemical reactions from NO x, SO 2 and NH 3.  In 2007 transport accounted for 30% of PM in Europe.  There has been in transport a decrease of PM by 38% from 1990 to 2007. Alexander Technological Institute of Thessaloniki 24

25. PM EMISSION Alexander Technological Institute of Thessaloniki 25

26. PM EMISSION Alexander Technological Institute of Thessaloniki 26

27. PM EMISSION Alexander Technological Institute of Thessaloniki 27

28. UNREGULATED EMISSIONS CO 2  All nations are CO 2 polluters; some more, some less.  It is interesting to know that the worst polluters in CO 2 quantities do not have the greatest number of citizens. Alexander Technological Institute of Thessaloniki 28

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30. Alexander Technological Institute of Thessaloniki 30 CO 2 per capita Source: World Resources Institute, 2003; as depicted in www.NationMaster.comwww.NationMaster.com

31. Alexander Technological Institute of Thessaloniki 31 Total CO 2 per country

32. UNREGULATED EMISSIONS CO 2  Cars account for 20% of total European CO 2 emission.  The 1995 goal was set to 120g/km of CO 2 emission by 2012. This corresponds to 4,5 lt/100 km for diesel cars and 5 lt/100 km for petrol cars.  In December 2007 the goal was set to a new car fleet average of 130g/km by 2012. Alexander Technological Institute of Thessaloniki 32

33. UNREGULATED EMISSIONS CO 2  Limit value curve:  The limit value curve implies that heavier cars are allowed higher emissions than lighter cars while preserving the overall fleet average.  Manufacturers will be given a target based on the sales-weighted average mass of their vehicles. Alexander Technological Institute of Thessaloniki 33

34. UNREGULATED EMISSIONS CO 2  Final deal in December 2008:  Phasing-in of requirements: in 2012 65% of each manufacturer's new cars must comply on average with the value of 120g/km. This will rise to 75% in 2013, 80% in 2014, and 100% in 2015.  The goal of 130g/km will be achieved by better tires or use of biofuels.  Long-term target: a target of 95g/km is specified for the year 2020. The modalities for reaching this target and the aspects of its implementation will have to be defined in a review to be completed no later than the beginning of 2013. Alexander Technological Institute of Thessaloniki 34

35. UNREGULATED EMISSIONS CO 2 Alexander Technological Institute of Thessaloniki 35

36. UNREGULATED EMISSIONS CO 2 Alexander Technological Institute of Thessaloniki 36

37. UNREGULATED EMISSIONS CO 2 Alexander Technological Institute of Thessaloniki 37

38. UNREGULATED EMISSIONS Ozone - O 3  Ozone in the upper atmosphere occurs naturally and protects life on earth by filtering ultraviolet radiation from the sun.  Ozone at ground level is a noxious pollutant. It is the major component of smog.  It is responsible for the choking, coughing, and stinging eyes associated with smog.  It causes respiratory diseases.  It inhibits plant growth. Alexander Technological Institute of Thessaloniki 38

39. UNREGULATED EMISSIONS Ozone - O 3  Ozone is formed in the atmosphere through a complex set of chemical reactions involving sunlight and ozone precursors (HC, NO x, CH 4 and NMVOC).  Very high levels of O 3 occur on hot summer days. Alexander Technological Institute of Thessaloniki 39

40. UNREGULATED EMISSIONS Ozone - O 3 Alexander Technological Institute of Thessaloniki 40

41. UNREGULATED EMISSIONS Ozone - O 3 Alexander Technological Institute of Thessaloniki 41

42. UNREGULATED EMISSIONS Ozone - O 3 Alexander Technological Institute of Thessaloniki 42

43. UNREGULATED EMISSIONS Ozone - O 3  Ozone levels can be reduced by:  Improved emission control systems in cars.  Use of lower volatility gasoline.  Improved annual state inspections of cars. Problem: few very “dirty cars”.  Reduce driving. Alexander Technological Institute of Thessaloniki 43

44. UNREGULATED EMISSIONS - PAH  Polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) are potent pollutants and occur in oil, coal and tar deposits, and are produced as byproducts of fuel burning (fossil fuel or biomass). Also, they are found in cooked foods (barbecuing meat or smoked fish).  Some are carcinogenic, mutagenic and teratogenic. Alexander Technological Institute of Thessaloniki 44

45. UNREGULATED EMISSIONS - PAH  Because of their affinity to mix with oil as opposed to water, they are found primarily in soil and sediment and not in water or air. However, they may be part of suspended PM in air.  They are also formed by incomplete combustion of wood, coal, diesel, fat, tobacco and incense. Alexander Technological Institute of Thessaloniki 45

46. UNREGULATED EMISSIONS - PAH Alexander Technological Institute of Thessaloniki 46

47. UNREGULATED EMISSIONS - PAH  The most potent carcinogens have been shown to be benz[a]anthracene, benzo[a]pyrene and dibenz[a,h]anthracene.  The semi-volatile property of PAHs makes them highly mobile throughout the environment via deposition and re- volatilisation between air, soil and water bodies. Alexander Technological Institute of Thessaloniki 47

48. UNREGULATED EMISSIONS - BTEX  BTEX stands for Benzene, Toluene, Ethylbenzene and Xylenes. They are found in gasoline.  They affect the central nervous system.  They can contaminate the soil and groundwater near fuel storage areas by leaking. Alexander Technological Institute of Thessaloniki 48

49. UNREGULATED EMISSIONS - BTEX  BTEX can be emitted to the air when gasoline evaporates or passes through the engine as unburned fuel.  High octane gasoline contains a larger amount of BTEX.  Other Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC’s) that are products of incomplete combustion:  Formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, diesel PM and 1,3-butadiene. Alexander Technological Institute of Thessaloniki 49

50. UNREGULATED EMISSIONS - BTEX  To reduce BTEX emission:  Lower gasoline volatility.  Reformulated gasoline.  Lower sulfur content in diesel.  More efficient catalytic converters.  Annual state inspection of cars.  Use of alternative fuels:  Alchohols, natural gas, propane, biofuels, electricity. Alexander Technological Institute of Thessaloniki 50

51. Alexander Technological Institute of Thessaloniki 51 CAR EXHAUST MEASUREMENTS  A number of central locations were chosen in Thessaloniki where cars were randomly stopped with the help of a traffic police officer to undergo a tailpipe gas analysis test at idle and at 2000 RPM.  A portable gas analyzer has been used enabling the measurements of CO, HC, CO 2 and O 2 concentrations, as well as the λ ratio value. The tests have been spread daily to cover the time period 08:00 to 20:00 in a uniform manner in all locations selected.  In Fall, Winter, Spring and Summer, measurements were taken in each season for 15 consecutive days.

52. Alexander Technological Institute of Thessaloniki 52 CAR EXHAUST MEASUREMENTS RESULTS VEHICLE CATEGORY VALID MEASUREMENTS EXCESSIVE HC AT IDLE EXCESSIVE HC AT 2500 RPM EXCESSIVE CO AT IDLE EXCESSIVE CO AT 2500 RPM Α 217 (100%)30 (13.8%)25 (11.5%)37 (17.1%)41 (18.8%) Β 345 (100%)24 (6.9%)54 (15.6%)62 (17.9%) C 4415 (100%)795 (18.1%)1012 (22.9%)283 (6.4%)553 (12.5%) VEHICLE CATEGORY Acars older than 1/10/86 – non catalytic VEHICLE CATEGORY Bcars after 1/10/86 – non catalytic VEHICLE CATEGORY Ccars fitted with a 3-way catalyst Table 2. Number and percentage (in parentheses) of cars exceeding legal emission levels

53. Alexander Technological Institute of Thessaloniki 53 CAR EXHAUST MEASUREMENTS CONCLUSIONS  More non-catalytic cars do not conform with the CO limits as compared to the catalytic ones - see Table 2.  More catalytic cars do not conform with the HC limits as compared to the non-catalytic ones - see Table 2.  A small number of gross polluting cars are responsible for most of the tailpipe emissions.  In every 40 catalytic cars there is one that emits CO as much as the 39 cars together. In every 6 non- catalytic cars there is one that emits CO as much as the five cars together.

54. Alexander Technological Institute of Thessaloniki 54 BTEX MEASUREMENTS  Benzene, Toluene, Ethylbenzene and Xylenes  BTEX (Benzene, Toluene, Ethylbenzene and Xylenes) measurements were made using passive samples for a continuous period of seven days, three times in 2005 and 2006.   Measurements were made to measure air quality in the streets of Thessaloniki. The passive filters were placed 2,5-3 meters above the ground.   Passive filters were also placed inside several private cars to measure the air quality inside these cars.

55. Alexander Technological Institute of Thessaloniki 55 BTEX RESULTS 2005 SindosLagada Street Egnatia/ Aristotelous Papanastasiou / Nea Egnatia Nomarchia Building Tsimiski/ Gounari Benzene2.18.04.910.35.38.1 Toluene8.327.417.136.517.429.3 Ethylbenzene1.55.43.37.23.46.0 m/p-Xylene4.517.110.222.510.718.8 o-Xylene1.35.93.68.03.86.6 Alpha-Pinene<DL0.4<DL 2.3<DL 1,2,4-TMB2.38.25.111.15.09.1 D-Limonene<DL Table 6: BTEX in atmospheric air at different streets in Thessaloniki in June 2005 DL= Detection Limit

56. Alexander Technological Institute of Thessaloniki 56 BTEX RESULTS 2005 Car 1 Karagiannis Car 2 Prassas Car 3 Triandafyllis Car 4 Grammatikis I Car 5 Grammatikis II Office Triandafyllis Benzene18.731.642.111.830.112.9 Toluene63.384.1203.176.1171.374.3 Ethylbenze ne 33.711.226.325.890.420.2 m/p-Xylene14.435.374.867.8235.853.2 o-Xylene16.612.227.513.037.818.3 Alpha- Pinene <DL7.1<DL3.30.63.4 1,2,4-TMB71.612.233.914.634.545.4 D- Limonene 14.50.9<DL6.70.8<DL Table 7: Measurements of BTEX inside private cars in June 2005

57. Alexander Technological Institute of Thessaloniki 57 BTEX RESULTS 2006 SindosNomarchia Str.Karamanlis (former Nea Egnatia) Hexane1.72.03.6 Benzene2.84.7 10.3 1-Butanol0.50.8 1.9 Toluene10.117.1 36.2 Ethylbenzene1.93.2 7.0 m/p-Xylene6.111.2 24.7 o-Xylene1.63.5 7.8 alpha-Pinene< DL 1,2,4-TMB2.55.4 11.2 D-Limonene< DL0.5< DL Table 10: BTEX in atmospheric air at different streets in Thessaloniki (June 2006)

58. Alexander Technological Institute of Thessaloniki 58 BTEX RESULTS 2006 Aristotelous SquareTsimiski Str. Hexane2.13.2 Benzene4.48.6 1-Butanol0.81.5 Toluene16.531.1 Ethylbenzene2.95.8 m/p-Xylene10.120.5 o-Xylene3.16.4 alpha-Pinene< DL 1,2,4-TMB4.99.4 D-Limonene0.5< DL Table 10: BTEX in atmospheric air at different streets in Thessaloniki (June 2006)

59. Alexander Technological Institute of Thessaloniki 59 BTEX RESULTS 2006 Car 1 – Karagiannis D. Car 2 – Karagianni M. Car 3 – GogosCar 4 – Christidis Hexane16.22.84.144.4 Benzene38.86.511.573.4 1-Butanol4.21.0 6.2 Toluene135.631.552.0280.5 Ethylbenzene21.95.57.137.0 m/p-Xylene77.519.526.9147.1 o-Xylene24.46.07.939.0 Alpha-Pinene< DL 1.13.6 1,2,4-TMB28.211.210.744.6 D-Limonene3.91.25.18.9 Table 11: Measurements of BTEX inside private cars (June 2006)

60. Alexander Technological Institute of Thessaloniki 60 BTEX RESULTS 2006 Car 5 – Raouzaios Car 6 – Chatzigeorgiou Car 7 – Gidaris Office Triandafyllis Hexane6.115.419.445.0 Benzene16.737.433.261.5 1-Butanol1.64.68.718.4 Toluene69.5228.395.6292.2 Ethylbenzene10.132.514.865.7 m/p-Xylene33.3130.045.9195.1 o-Xylene9.335.814.261.7 Alpha-Pinene1.1< DL1.4< DL 1,2,4-TMB12.540.414.0147.1 D-Limonene2.63.39.7< DL Table 11: Measurements of BTEX inside private cars (June 2006)

61. Alexander Technological Institute of Thessaloniki 61 BTEX MEASUREMENTS CONCLUSIONS  Benzene concentrations in the various streets ranged from 2 – 10,3 μg/m 3 (June 2005 and June 2006). In many locations the levels of benzene exceeded the established limit value (5 μg/m 3 annual mean) set by the European Commission to be met by 2010.  The ratio toluene/benzene was very similar in all locations (between 3 and 3,9) which indicated traffic emissions as the main source.

62. Alexander Technological Institute of Thessaloniki 62 BTEX MEASUREMENTS CONCLUSIONS  Very high concentrations of air pollutants were measured inside of almost all the private cars. In particular, fuel originated compounds (aromatic, aliphatic compounds) were present in high concentrations which can hardly be connected with the overall traffic emissions. This indicated strong pollutant sources inside the cars (fuel leaks, smoking).  Exposure to multiple air pollutants in concentrations as they have been measured in some cars might constitute a health risk for the car owners.

63. Alexander Technological Institute of Thessaloniki 63 THANK YOU FOR YOUR ATTENTION