1. 1 AQA AS Physical Education PHED 3

2. 2 Psychological Aspects Personality

3. 3 Hollander – personality is Inner core of Middle layer of Outer layer of

4. 4 Hollander’s model

5. 5 Personality Theories: Hollander – behaviour depends on inner core of traits and environment– Other ideas – based on inner core – Yet others – environment determines personality -

6. 6 Trait theories

7. 7 Situational theories

8. 8 Interactionist theories Lewin - – Behaviour is a function of our and our Behaviour determined by and Behave in way in same Behave in different

9. 9 Measuring personality

10. 10 Questionnaire AdvantagesDisadvantages

11. 11 Interviews AdvantagesDisadvantages

12. 12 Observation AdvantagesDisadvantages

13. 13 Profile of Mood States

14. 14 Mood States Successful elite performers show high vigour; low tension, depression, fatigue and confusion Unsuccessful athletes show Change in profile associated with Cannot be applied to all performers – success could lead to

15. 15 Achievement motivation When faced with a situation where success is just as likely as failure what do you choose? or An theory

16. 16 Two dimensions - personality traits Need to achieve - NAch urge to be best/seeks to improve – seeks situations - Need to avoid failure – Naf - avoids -

17. 17 Nach characteristics Seeks Concerned with Values Enjoys Not afraid of Attributes performance to Naf characteristics Preoccupied with challenges Prefer Avoid Avoid and perform worse in Attribute performance to

18. 18 More obvious in evaluative situations Hence NAch-type common in sport ego-oriented task-oriented Use questionnaire to determine preferred style

19. 19 Typical question Morgan’s profile of mood state (POMS) is a questionnaire given to performers to establish their relative measures on the six mental health states of fatigue, vigour, tension, depression, anger and confusion. (a)Research has shown that the profile for POMS differs between elite and non-elite performers. Describe these differences. (3 marks) (b)What are the advantages and disadvantages of using questionnaires to provide psychological information?(4 marks)

20. 20 Answer

21. 21 Psychological Aspects Arousal

22. 22 Arousal State of – continuum Physiological signs: Psychological signs:

23. 23 Too much arousal High Negative Inability to difficulties

24. 24 Drive theory

25. 25 As arousal increases performance of also increases If dominant response is invariably at skill then performance If dominant response is invariably at skill then performance deteriorates Explanation

26. 26 Simple, well-learned skills – increased arousal improves chance of response occurring Complex, not well-learned - increased arousal improves chance of response occurring Drive theory

27. 27 Inverted U theory

28. 28 Explanation At low levels of, increase in means increase in Until level of arousal – performance Further increases in arousal – performance

29. 29 Explanation Levels of optimal arousal are and High arousal probably causes Means beginners miss important

30. 30 Catastrophe theory Level of arousal Level of performance

31. 31 Catastrophe theory explained Point A - increasing arousal above causes decline in performance At point B the performer either continues with and performance to C Or at B, performer arousal and performance will gradually to point D

32. 32 Peak flow experience Being in the performance Effortless, Totally Movements are Totally in Immense

33. 33 Typical question The inverted U theory may be used to explain how arousal may affect sports performance. (a) (i) Name two other theories of arousal.(2 marks) (ii) Figure 1 shows the arousal-performance relationship for: passing in hockey; putting in golf; and tackling in rugby. Using Figure 1, match each of the curves A, B and C to one of these activities, justifying your choice.(4 marks) (iii)Explain how the required levels of arousal vary between novice and elite performers.(2 marks) CBA LowLevels of arousal Q ua lit y of pe rf or m an ce High Low

34. 34 Answer

35. 35 Psychological Aspects Controlling anxiety

36. 36 Anxiety Negative aspect of experiencing stress: Two components – Two types -

37. 37 Trait / state anxiety Trait – high trait anxiety – most situations seen as - tends to develop more State – before competition; ; but at crucial points and components

38. 38 Anxiety

39. 39 Cognitive and somatic state anxiety State anxiety

40. 40 Cognitive state anxiety

41. 41 Measuring anxiety Physiological measures –

42. 42 Measuring anxiety Observations –

43. 43 Measuring anxiety Self-report questionnaires –

44. 44 STAI – State-Trait Anxiety Inventory Self report questionnaire (Speilberger (1970) Measures anxiety of performer

45. 45 Competitive anxiety (Martens 1977) – High competitive trait anxiety – Development of

46. 46 SCAT – Sport Competition Anxiety Test Self-report - Measures anxiety in competition- specific situations Measures specific anxiety trait – Shows

47. 47 Level of anxiety Quality of performance High Low Effects of state anxiety on performance

48. 48 Explanation of graph Somatic state anxiety – performance at level of anxiety – inverted U Cognitive state anxiety - lower for better performance –

49. 49 Multidimensional view of anxiety 1. 2. 3. Led to CSAI-2 – Competitive State Anxiety Inventory–2 (Martens 1990)

50. 50 Changes in cognitive and somatic anxiety pre-competition Time before competition Level of state anxiety High Low 1 week1 day2 hours1 hour start 1 hour into

51. 51 Explanation of graph Cognitive state anxiety days prior to competition and then during competition usually depending on possibility of Somatic state anxiety tends to remain until before event, then as event starts

52. 52 Typical question The cognitive and somatic state anxiety of the competitors may vary as the start of the race approaches. (i) What do you understand by the terms cognitive state anxiety and somatic state anxiety?(2 marks) (ii) Describe how cognitive state anxiety and somatic state anxiety may vary prior to and during the race.(3 marks)

53. 53 Answer

54. 54 Controlling Anxiety Stress – response of body to demands of situation Demands = – Threats to Potential Fear of Increased Stress causes

55. 55 Stress Whether situation causes stress depends on: Some activities designed to create stress -

56. 56 Stress response response released Increases and - more Increased Blood diverted away from skin – Focuses

57. 57 Stress management Control thoughts - cognitive techniques – eg Reduce physiological components - somatic techniques – eg Involves redirecting thoughts away from and Needs

58. 58 Imagery Imagine Use Must be Can imagine event – include possible Pre-experience achievement of – increase Lock on to perfect performance –

59. 59 Attentional control (focusing) Learn to concentrate/focus on Concentration linked to Tendency to focus on Needs to control attention Avoid Use of key phrases to help Use routine for repeatable skills – eg

60. 60 Thought-stopping Use of ‘action’ – Switch attention to controlled Use whenever occurs Action that thought Involves – learn to think of action rather than negative thought

61. 61 Self-talk Develop about your actions Learn to Rehearse when things are going wrong - Can be Can recall good plus

62. 62 Biofeedback Use monitor to show effect of anxiety – eg Performer to reduce variable By thinking of thoughts

63. 63 Centering Use to regain concentration Often used with ‘ ’ Requires considerable technique

64. 64 Breathing control Focus on rather than cause of anxiety Learn breathing Lowers Often combined with techniques

65. 65 Progressive Muscular Relaxation Reduces Relax muscles by alternatively Start at extremities and gradually move towards technique

66. 66 Goal setting Control anxiety by directing attention away from and towards achievable Increases Improves Raises Reduces

67. 67 Types of goals Outcome – based on – eg But can be Performance – based on specific aspect of play – eg Process – based on – often affects goals

68. 68 Typical question (a)Explain the difference between outcome, performance and process goals(3 marks) (b)Which of these tends to be best at reducing anxiety? Explain your answer.(4 marks)

69. 69 Answer

70. 70 Psychological Aspects Attitudes, aggression and attributions

71. 71 Attitudes Opinions - Predispose towards Positive and negative Directed towards and

72. 72 Components of Attitudes Cognitive – Affective – Behavioural – Normally the three components are

73. 73 Influences on formation of attitudes 1.Peers – copying attitudes of 2.Significant others – – parents/teachers/coaches 3.Familiarity – develop attitudes 4.Conditioning – strengthen existing attitudes

74. 74 Attitudes and behaviour Attitudes - good predictors of Good attitudes lead to behaviour Eg

75. 75 Positive attitude Exercise is Enjoy Activity is a Excited by Negative attitude Exercise is Fear for activity amongst friends / family Fear of the constraints Attitudes to Physical Education and Sport

76. 76 Attitudes and behaviour Attitudes should predict behaviour - but not always the case Fishbein (1975), proposed that if we want to predict specific behaviours, we should consider ‘ ’ is a more accurate predictor of behaviour.

77. 77 Measuring attitudes Behavioural - eye contact/body language/ physiological measures – Questionnaires – commonly used - suffer from lack of – see notes on

78. 78 Changing attitudes Persuasive communication – needs: communication

79. 79 Changing attitudes - change a component - produce Comfortable if our thoughts ( ), feelings ( ) and actions ( ) components match Producing inconsistency – eg - may change attitude as a whole

80. 80 What is Aggression? Consider a basketball match between two teams, the Blues and the Reds. During the match, six incidents occur. Which of these 6 do you think involves aggression?

81. 81 What is aggression? 1.One of the Blues best players deliberately, but fairly, stands in the way of the Reds guard, setting a fair, but physical pick or screen. 2.The Red's guard retaliates by pushing the Blues player to the ground. 3.When the same thing occurs later in the game, the Reds guard again tries to retaliate, but the Blues player is ready for him and moves out of the way.

82. 82 What is aggression? 4.Blues attack again, and as a Blues forward moves into a space nearer the basket, he accidentally collides with a Reds defender. 5.The Reds defender, doesn't quite see it in the same way, and shouts after the Blues player, "he's a fat wimp who shouldn't be allowed on a basketball court.“ 6.As the final whistle goes, and Reds have narrowly lost, the Reds coach vents his frustration by kicking a chair.

83. 83 Aggression 1 – 2 – 3 – 4 – 5 – 6 –

84. 84 Aggression “Any form of behaviour directed toward the goal of harming or injuring another living being who is motivated to avoid such treatment” Aggression is: 1. 2. 3. 4.

85. 85 Forms of Aggression Instrumental – Hostile - Constructive use of force in sport = Channelled aggression – diverting aggressive feelings into

86. 86 Aggression Physical act Assertion Physical act

87. 87 Theories Instinct - Frustration-aggression – Aggressive Cue theory – Social learning -

88. 88 Instinct theory Aggression Builds up – needs to be Displaced into sport rather than Release = Theory suggests aggression is, but some is as a means of control Recent evidence of for aggression

89. 89 Frustration-aggression hypothesis Frustration leads to Aggression comes from In sport, prevents achievement of - leads to frustration, especially if Aggression released – – but not always But, not all leads to

90. 90 Frustration-aggression

91. 91 Aggressive-cue theory Not all frustration leads to aggression Only occurs if certain present Such as: Coach aggression of behaviours Certain or Previous Depends on

92. 92 Social learning theory to be aggressive of others others leads to prevents

93. 93 Aggression and Sport Sport as a release? Competition as a of aggression? Competition causes high levels of that performance is by aggressive behaviour

94. 94 Strategies to reduce aggression Strategies both for player and coach

95. 95 Typical question The collisions that occur in some sports can be the result of assertion or aggression. (a)Distinguish between the terms aggression and assertion in relation to sporting performance. (2 marks) (c)Suggest why playing competitive games can often lead to aggressive behaviour.(3 marks) (d)What can a referee do to control aggression during a sporting competition? (3 marks)

96. 96 Answer

97. 97 Think about your last sporting performance where you won. Why did you win? – Think about your last sporting performance where you lost. Why did you lose? - Attributions

98. 98 Attribution Theory The we provide for Can lead to changes in our:

99. 99 Four attributes decide achievement – comments on one’s own performance – comments on one’s own contribution/involvement – comments on the standard of the opposition – comments on chance and the environment

100. 100 Weiner’s model ExternalInternal Stable External Unstable Locus of causality Locus of stability

101. 101 Weiner’s model Locus of – (ability and effort) or attribution (task difficulty and luck) Locus of – stable/unchanging ( ) or changeable/unstable ( )

102. 102 Self-serving bias Tendency to attribute Makes us feel better about ourselves – Avoid responsibility for

103. 103 Links to achievement motivation Attributions affect Suggestion that high and low differ in High achievers – attribute to and to factors Low achievers –

104. 104 Learned helplessness Expectation of – failure inevitable even if possible Due to attributing to lack of Requires - helping performer attribute and

105. 105 Attribution retraining

106. 106 Typical question Competitors at the 2004 Athens Olympics who did not get beyond the heats may eventually suffer from learned helplessness. (a)What do you understand by the term learned helplessness and suggest the likely cause of it?(3 marks) (b)Sufferers of learned helplessness may require attribution retraining. Explain what attribution retraining is and suggest why it is effective.(3 marks)

107. 107 Answers

108. 108 Psychological Aspects Confidence

109. 109 Self Efficacy Self-confidence – person’s that they have the to Self-confidence opposite to anxiety – when confident – – when anxious – Self-efficacy – self- confidence; expectation of and good performance in a

110. 110 Changing self-efficacy Efficacy expectations performance

111. 111 Performance accomplishments - most effective cause of self-efficacy Success at task enhances at easier one Early success better than Independent success better than

112. 112 Vicarious experiences Watching others Hence value of Success of others reduces Better if model is Not as good as

113. 113 Verbal persuasion Encouraging others that than previous two Needs

114. 114 Emotional arousal Performers interpretation of own Over-arousal hinders Need for techniques

115. 115 Increasing self- efficacy

116. 116 Decreasing self-efficacy

117. 117 Typical question If performers are to maintain interest and improve performance in sports, it is essential that the performers develop self-efficacy. (a)Explain the difference between self-efficacy and self-confidence.(2 marks) (b)An ice hockey coach wants to develop self- efficacy in his performers. What strategies could he use to develop this?(6 marks)

118. 118 Answer

119. 119 Social facilitation The effects of the presence of an on Audience: primary spectators – secondary spectators – co-actors –

120. 120 Zajonc Audience produces increase in Hence improve performance on Negative effect on

121. 121 Increase in arousal

122. 122 Cotterell Different audiences have effects Called

123. 123 Baron’s Distraction-conflict theory Audience takes up capacity Sufficient capacity for skills, but in tasks, audience affects and increases and hence affects Any limits and increases

124. 124 Baron – distraction-conflict theory Athlete performing

125. 125 Implications of social facilitation Learn new skill in Train/practice with Learn to minimise effects of distractors –

126. 126 Home advantage? Greater % wins for home teams Increases player’s Increases Increases – theory – skills feedback from crowd for visitors increases Anxiety induced by

127. 127 Home advantage? Can also increase for home team – high More important in of competition Less important when at home Greater influence when spectators are

128. 128 Typical question (i)Tennis matches are often played in front of an audience. Using appropriate theories, explain how the effects of playing in front of an audience may differ for: An elite performer; A novice.(5 marks) (ii)How could a coach prepare a novice tennis player who is about to play in front of spectators for the first time?(4 marks)

129. 129 Answer

130. 130 Psychological Aspects Group success

131. 131 Which is a group? Why?

132. 132 Group dynamics Groups have:

133. 133 Sociogram

134. 134 Sociograms Chart showing Inter-relationships – Shared objectives – Contributions to a shared goal –

135. 135 Group dynamics Includes: Norms – within group Relationships between Sense on members Effects of within group

136. 136 Group formation Forming – Storming – Norming – Performing –

137. 137 Cohesion Forces - keeping members within group/ Forces - causing commitment to group Two categories: - individual’s perception of group task – individual’s perception of social interaction

138. 138 Group cohesion

139. 139 Cohesion depends on: 1.Individual attractiveness to group – task – level of of individual in group task 2.Individual attractiveness to group – – how individual feels about their interactions 3.Group integration – task – how much individual feels 4.Group integration – social – how mush individual feels group in

140. 140 Factors influencing cohesion Type of of group members Satisfaction with of group

141. 141 Development of cohesion Antecedents ( ) factors – geography, etc factors – similarity of status factors –

142. 142

143. 143 Developing cohesion team members Encourage Known Set goals Develop Encourage towards team and members Encourage

144. 144 Cohesion and success Generally thought that Cohesion bringing success depends mainly on Can have poor cohesion and success if cohesion high

145. 145 Social Learning Steiner: Coaches need to and at same time faulty group process such as lack of, and poor

146. 146 Potential productivity =

147. 147 Task relevant resources Player’s and group’s

148. 148 Social resources

149. 149 Faulty processes = Factors affecting actual productivity

150. 150 Losses due to Faulty Processes Co-ordination losses: Team not not being implemented Motivational losses: by individual/group on part of some/all team members

151. 151 Social Loafing/Ringlemann effect given by when working with others Lack of motivation due to: Thinking others are not ‘pulling their weight’ – Thinking others will cover own lack of Thinking own efforts Lack of of own efforts

152. 152 Cures of social loafing Identify situations that allow Emphasise role of to team’s performance Provide of contributions of all Regular for individual contributions Use but rely on Improved for task

153. 153 Typical question Steiner (1972) suggested that the relationship between the individual members of a team and their overall performance may be expressed as: Actual productivity = potential productivity – losses due to faulty group processes (i) Explain the terms actual productivity and potential productivity and the factors that might affect them.(3 marks) (ii) Suggest potential causes of losses due to faulty group processes.(4 marks)

154. 154 Answer

155. 155 Psychological Aspects Leadership

156. 156 Leadership "the behavioural process of influencing individuals and groups towards set goals". What makes a good leader? Good ; decision- making; ; of activity; with performers; ; ; ; ;

157. 157 Effective Leadership

158. 158 Types of Leaders Leaders born – Emergent leaders – Prescribed leaders –

159. 159 Leadership styles Interactional model Leadership style – Task - Team members -

160. 160 Interactional model

161. 161 Leadership styles Leaders needs to adapt style to suit and Task orientated - focus on best when Person-orientated – focus on best when

162. 162 Leadership styles Autocratic – Democratic – Laissez-faire -

163. 163 Leadership styles

164. 164 Leadership styles Use task-orientated / autocratic in Use person-orientated / democratic in

165. 165 Chelladurai’s model Leadership Scale for Sports – dimensions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

166. 166 Coaching preferences Novices prefer Individual sport’s performers prefer Team players prefer Females prefer Older performers prefer

167. 167 Chelladurai’s model When does good leadership happen? When –

168. 168 Situational characteristics Leaders characteristics Members characteristics Antecedents Leaders behaviour Consequences

169. 169 Typical question Success in sport is often linked to effective leadership. Fiedler (1967) suggested that the effectiveness of a leader depended upon the extent to which the leader’s style fitted the situation the team were in. (a)Name the two styles of leader that Fiedler identified and describe the different situations where each style is most effective.(5 marks) (b)Chelladurai suggested additional factors, other than the leader’s characteristics and different situations, which must be taken into account when assessing the effectiveness of leadership. Identify and explain one of these factors.(2 marks)

170. 170 Answer