1. Inexcusable Absence: Overcoming Exclusion in Girls Education Marlaine Lockheed Center for Global Development CIES Gender Symposium, 2007

2. Source: Lewis and Lockheed 20062

3. 3 Schooling trends are improving in the developing world Girls schooling has traditionally lagged that of boys, but girls are catching up Socially excluded children still lag Socially excluded girls are the least likely to go to school Countries with many socially excluded groups are at risk

4. Source: Lewis and Lockheed 20064 Gender parity in primary enrollments rose between 1960 and 2000

5. Source: Lewis and Lockheed 20065 But 60 million primary school age girls were out of school in 2000 RegionGirls out of school (000s) % from excluded groups Sub Saharan Africa23,82775 South Asia23,55267 Middle East & N. Africa5,09233 Latin America & Caribb.1,49799 East Asia & Pacific4,87090 E. Europe & Central Asia1,58390 Total60,42171

6. Source: Lewis and Lockheed 20066 Most out-of-school girls come from socially excluded groups

7. Source: Lewis and Lockheed 20067 Who are the socially excluded groups? Stigmatization Ethnic differences Low status Involuntary minority status

8. Source: Lewis and Lockheed 20068

9. 9

10. 10 Rural female- Other Rural-Male-Other

11. Source: Lewis and Lockheed 200611 Rural female- Other Rural-Male-Other

12. Source: Lewis and Lockheed 200612 Guatemala: Indigenous girls in are least likely to be enrolled in school

13. Source: Lewis and Lockheed 200613 Guatemala: Indigenous girls in are least likely to be enrolled in school

14. Source: Lewis and Lockheed 200614 Gaps in enrollment, attainment or completion for excluded girls Nigeria 35% lower probability Pakistan 30-55 percentage points lower Slovak Republic 45 percentage points lower

15. Source: Lewis and Lockheed 200615 Heterogeneity and male-female differences in primary school completion rates

16. Source: Lewis and Lockheed 200616 The Challenge: Getting and keeping disadvantaged children in school In all countries disadvantaged children lag behind in school, and girls do so disproportionately: Enrollment Completion/Graduation Performance But, excluded girls go to school, stay in school and do better than boys when given the opportunity

17. Source: Lewis and Lockheed 200617 Quechua girls outperform Quechua boys in 5 th grade, Peru 2000

18. Source: Lewis and Lockheed 200618 Indigenous girls outperform indigenous boys in Ecuador

19. Source: Lewis and Lockheed 200619 Why does heterogeneity have this effect? Discrimination in the labor market Reduces motivation Discrimination in access to school Increases direct, indirect and opportunity costs of schooling to families Lowers school quality Discrimination within schools Reduces opportunity to learn Expectations and stereotype threat Lowers performance

20. Source: Lewis and Lockheed 200620 Success is possible, with targeted interventions Examples from developed countries New Zealand, Canada Examples from developing countries Chile, Bangladesh, India