2. Section 5 : Learning Psychology in Modules by Saul Kassin

3. ©2006 Prentice HallLearning Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Observational Learning

4. ©2006 Prentice Hall Learning Ethology The study of the behavior of animals in their natural habitat. The study of the behavior of animals in their natural habitat. Fixed Action Pattern Fixed Action Pattern A species-specific behavior that is built into an animal’s nervous system and triggered by a specific stimulus. A species-specific behavior that is built into an animal’s nervous system and triggered by a specific stimulus.

5. ©2006 Prentice Hall Learning Ethology In herring gull chicks, pecking is elicited (released) by the movement of any red dot, even on objects that do not resemble an adult herring gull. This is an example of a fixed action pattern. In herring gull chicks, pecking is elicited (released) by the movement of any red dot, even on objects that do not resemble an adult herring gull. This is an example of a fixed action pattern. Herring-Gull Models

6. ©2006 Prentice Hall Learning Defining Learning A relatively permanent change in knowledge or behavior that results from experience. A relatively permanent change in knowledge or behavior that results from experience. Adaptation by learning is flexible. Adaptation by learning is flexible. Humans adapt to life’s demands by learning and not by instinct. Humans adapt to life’s demands by learning and not by instinct. The key to learning is association. The key to learning is association.

7. ©2006 Prentice Hall Learning Habituation of Fear Habituation Habituation The tendency of an organism to become familiar with a stimulus as a result of repeated exposure The tendency of an organism to become familiar with a stimulus as a result of repeated exposure It is the simplest form of learning. It is the simplest form of learning. Note here that rats repeatedly exposed to a cat’s odor, and no cat, hid less over time. Note here that rats repeatedly exposed to a cat’s odor, and no cat, hid less over time.

8. ©2006 Prentice Hall Learning Classical Conditioning A type of learning in which an organism comes to associate one stimulus with another (also called Pavlovian conditioning). A type of learning in which an organism comes to associate one stimulus with another (also called Pavlovian conditioning). Classical Conditioning involves learning that one event predicts another. Classical Conditioning involves learning that one event predicts another. This type of learning involves This type of learning involves An unconditioned stimulus An unconditioned stimulus An unconditioned response An unconditioned response A conditioned stimulus A conditioned stimulus A conditioned response A conditioned response

9. ©2006 Prentice Hall Classical Conditioning An unconditioned stimulus (US) An unconditioned stimulus (US) A stimulus (an event) that triggers an unconditioned (involuntary) response. A stimulus (an event) that triggers an unconditioned (involuntary) response. Examples: food, loud noises, painful stimuli Examples: food, loud noises, painful stimuli In Pavlov’s experiments, the US was the food. In Pavlov’s experiments, the US was the food. An unconditioned response (UR) An unconditioned response (UR) An unlearned response to an unconditioned stimulus. An unlearned response to an unconditioned stimulus. Examples: salivation to food, jumping when hearing a loud noise, moving away from something painful Examples: salivation to food, jumping when hearing a loud noise, moving away from something painful In Pavlov’s experiments, salivation to the food was the UR. In Pavlov’s experiments, salivation to the food was the UR.

10. ©2006 Prentice Hall Classical Conditioning A conditioned stimulus (CS) A conditioned stimulus (CS) A neutral stimulus (an event) that comes to evoke a classically conditioned (learned) response due to being presented shortly before the US. A neutral stimulus (an event) that comes to evoke a classically conditioned (learned) response due to being presented shortly before the US. In Pavlov’s experiments, the CS was the bell. In Pavlov’s experiments, the CS was the bell. A conditioned response (CR) A conditioned response (CR) A learned response to a classically conditioned stimulus. A learned response to a classically conditioned stimulus. In Pavlov’s experiments, salivation to the bell was the CR. In Pavlov’s experiments, salivation to the bell was the CR.

11. ©2006 Prentice Hall Classical Conditioning Pavlov’s Apparatus Pavlov classically conditioned dogs to salivate. Salivation was measured by a pen attached to a slowly rotating cylinder of paper. Pavlov classically conditioned dogs to salivate. Salivation was measured by a pen attached to a slowly rotating cylinder of paper.

12. ©2006 Prentice Hall Classical Conditioning Pavlov’s Discovery Before Conditioning Before Stimuli Are Paired Before Stimuli Are Paired Unconditioned Stimulus (US) elicits Unconditioned Response (UR) Unconditioned Stimulus (US) elicits Unconditioned Response (UR) Meat powder leads to salivation Meat powder leads to salivation Neutral stimulus elicits no particular response Neutral stimulus elicits no particular response Bell leads to orienting response only, no salivation Bell leads to orienting response only, no salivation

13. ©2006 Prentice Hall Classical Conditioning Pavlov’s Discovery During and After Conditioning Conditioning: Neutral Stimulus is Paired with the Unconditioned Stimulus Conditioning: Neutral Stimulus is Paired with the Unconditioned Stimulus Bell rings, then meat powder is delivered Bell rings, then meat powder is delivered This procedure is repeated several times This procedure is repeated several times After Several Trials of pairing the bell with the food After Several Trials of pairing the bell with the food When Bell rings, dog salivates When Bell rings, dog salivates The Bell is now a Conditioned Stimulus (CS) The Bell is now a Conditioned Stimulus (CS) Salivation is a Conditioned Response (CR) Salivation is a Conditioned Response (CR)

14. ©2006 Prentice Hall Classical Conditioning

15. ©2006 Prentice Hall Classical Conditioning Basic Principles Acquisition Acquisition Formation of a learned response to a stimulus through presentation of an unconditioned stimulus Formation of a learned response to a stimulus through presentation of an unconditioned stimulus Extinction Extinction Elimination of a learned response by removal of the unconditioned stimulus Elimination of a learned response by removal of the unconditioned stimulus Spontaneous Recovery Spontaneous Recovery Re-emergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a rest period Re-emergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a rest period

16. ©2006 Prentice Hall Classical Conditioning The Rise and Fall of a Conditioned Response Classical Conditioning The Rise and Fall of a Conditioned Response

17. ©2006 Prentice Hall Classical Conditioning Temporal Relations in Classical Conditioning In forward pairing, the CS precedes the US. In forward pairing, the CS precedes the US. Easiest conditioning Easiest conditioning In simultaneous pairing, the CS and US occur together. In simultaneous pairing, the CS and US occur together. In backward pairing, the CS follows the US. In backward pairing, the CS follows the US. Most difficult Most difficult Time

18. ©2006 Prentice Hall Classical Conditioning Generalization & Discrimination Stimulus Generalization Stimulus Generalization The tendency to respond to a stimulus that is similar to the conditioned stimulus The tendency to respond to a stimulus that is similar to the conditioned stimulus Discrimination Discrimination In classical and operant conditioning, the ability to distinguish between different stimuli In classical and operant conditioning, the ability to distinguish between different stimuli

19. ©2006 Prentice Hall Classical Conditioning Higher-Order Conditioning With repeated pairing, a neutral stimulus can be linked with a CS. With repeated pairing, a neutral stimulus can be linked with a CS. The bell (CS) is paired with a black square. The bell (CS) is paired with a black square. This neutral stimulus becomes a CS. This neutral stimulus becomes a CS. In the example, the black square elicits salivation. In the example, the black square elicits salivation. One CS was used to create another CS. One CS was used to create another CS.

20. ©2006 Prentice Hall Classical Conditioning When the CS Predicts the US Top graph: The US does not happen without the CS Top graph: The US does not happen without the CS Good learning here, the CS predicts the US Good learning here, the CS predicts the US Bottom graph: The US happens with or without CS Bottom graph: The US happens with or without CS Poor learning here, the CS does not predict the US Poor learning here, the CS does not predict the US

21. ©2006 Prentice Hall Classical Conditioning The Conditioning of Little Albert An 11-month old boy – named “Albert” – was conditioned to fear a white laboratory rat. An 11-month old boy – named “Albert” – was conditioned to fear a white laboratory rat. Each time he reached for the rat, Watson made a loud clanging noise right behind Albert. Each time he reached for the rat, Watson made a loud clanging noise right behind Albert. Albert’s fear generalized to anything white and furry. Albert’s fear generalized to anything white and furry. Including rabbits and a Santa Claus mask Including rabbits and a Santa Claus mask

22. ©2006 Prentice Hall Learning Operant Conditioning Thorndike’s Law of Effect Learning Operant Conditioning Thorndike’s Law of Effect Cats were put into puzzle boxes and the time to escape decreased over the number of attempts. Cats were put into puzzle boxes and the time to escape decreased over the number of attempts. Law of Effect Law of Effect Responses followed by positive outcomes are repeated, whereas those followed by negative outcomes are not. Responses followed by positive outcomes are repeated, whereas those followed by negative outcomes are not.

23. Operant Conditioning The Principles of Reinforcement Operant Conditioning Operant Conditioning The process by which organisms learn to behave in ways that produce reinforcement. The process by which organisms learn to behave in ways that produce reinforcement. Reinforcement Reinforcement Any stimulus that increases the likelihood of a prior response. Any stimulus that increases the likelihood of a prior response.

24. Operant Conditioning The Principles of Reinforcement Punishment Punishment Any stimulus that decreases the likelihood of a prior response. Any stimulus that decreases the likelihood of a prior response. Shaping Shaping Using reinforcements to guide an animal or person gradually toward a specific behavior. Using reinforcements to guide an animal or person gradually toward a specific behavior.

25. ©2006 Prentice Hall Operant Conditioning Reinforcement & Punishment Increases Behavior Decreases Behavior Present Stimulus Positive Reinforcement (give money) Positive Punishment (give chores) Remove Stimulus Negative Reinforcement (take away chores) Negative Punishment (take away money)

26. ©2006 Prentice Hall Operant Conditioning Schedules of Reinforcement Simple reinforcement schedules produce characteristic response patterns. Simple reinforcement schedules produce characteristic response patterns. Steeper lines mean higher response rates. Steeper lines mean higher response rates. Ratio schedules produce more responses than do interval schedules. Ratio schedules produce more responses than do interval schedules.

27. ©2006 Prentice Hall Operant Conditioning Using Reinforcement to Boost Job Performance All salesclerks were observed for a 20- day baseline period. All salesclerks were observed for a 20- day baseline period. Then, half were given cash bonuses for good performance, half were not. Then, half were given cash bonuses for good performance, half were not. The ones given cash bonuses improved job performance. The ones given cash bonuses improved job performance.

28. ©2006 Prentice Hall Operant Conditioning Condition Oneself to Break a Bad Habit Identify specific target behavior to change Identify specific target behavior to change Record baseline Record baseline Formulate a plan Formulate a plan To increase a behavior, use reinforcement To increase a behavior, use reinforcement To extinguish behavior, avoid situations where it occurs or remove reinforcements To extinguish behavior, avoid situations where it occurs or remove reinforcements Implement the plan, revise as needed Implement the plan, revise as needed Maintain the change Maintain the change

29. ©2006 Prentice Hall Operant Conditioning New Developments Rats in a Maze: Evidence for a Cognitive Map Tolman trained rats in this maze, with all alleys open. Tolman trained rats in this maze, with all alleys open. If “Block A” in place, rats chose green (shorter) path. If “Block A” in place, rats chose green (shorter) path. If “Block B” in place, rats chose blue path. If “Block B” in place, rats chose blue path. Green path is also blocked. Green path is also blocked. Rats take the shortest detours, navigating as if they have an internal map. Rats take the shortest detours, navigating as if they have an internal map.

30. ©2006 Prentice Hall Operant Conditioning New Developments Latent Learning Latent Learning: Learning that occurs but is not exhibited in performance until there is an incentive to do so. Latent Learning: Learning that occurs but is not exhibited in performance until there is an incentive to do so. Some rats found food every time (red line) Some rats found food every time (red line) Some rats never found food (blue line) Some rats never found food (blue line) Some rats found food on Day 11 (green line) Some rats found food on Day 11 (green line)

31. ©2006 Prentice Hall Operant Conditioning New Developments Hidden Cost of Rewards Preschoolers played with felt-tipped markers and were observed. Preschoolers played with felt-tipped markers and were observed. Divided into 3 groups: Divided into 3 groups: Given markers again and asked to draw Given markers again and asked to draw Promised a reward for playing with markers Promised a reward for playing with markers Played with markers, then rewarded Played with markers, then rewarded Children who drew with the markers to get the reward were now less interested in them. Children who drew with the markers to get the reward were now less interested in them.

32. Observational Learning Learning that takes place when one observes and models the behavior of others. Learning that takes place when one observes and models the behavior of others. Studies of Modeling Studies of Modeling Children and others model both antisocial and prosocial behavior. Children and others model both antisocial and prosocial behavior.

33. ©2006 Prentice Hall Observational Learning The Process of Modeling Involves: Attention Attention One must pay attention to a behavior and its consequences. One must pay attention to a behavior and its consequences. Retention Retention One must recall what was observed. One must recall what was observed. Reproduction Reproduction Observers must have the motor ability to reproduce the modeled behavior. Observers must have the motor ability to reproduce the modeled behavior. Motivation Motivation Observer must expect reinforcement for modeled act. Observer must expect reinforcement for modeled act.