1. Operant Conditioning of Canis lupis familiaris That is, clicker training the domestic dog!

2. Defining learning Learning is……. – A relatively permanent change in behavior not due to maturation but to experience and/or practice. – A learned behavior is predictable – For our class we will concentrate on 2 kinds of learning Classical conditioning is pairing a predictive stimulus with a predicted event: – CS  US  UR  CR – you respond because a stimulus signals an upcoming event – Do NOT have to respond Operant conditioning: Pairing a consequence with a behavior – R  C – Can add a predictive stimulus: S+: R  C – Animal MUST engage in the response in order to receive the consequence

3. Pavlov’s Contribution Ivan Pavlov – Russian physiologist: Studied salivation – 1901: discovered and wrote about classical conditioning – Found that his dogs reacted to both his presence and the time of day for feeding/experimentation Researched this: – Measured amount of salivation during baseline: Present food to dogs Measure slobber – Then added a predictive stimulus: a Bell Presented the Bell  Food Measured slobber to see if dogs would begin to slobber to the bell

4. Labeled each part of these events: Unconditioned stimulus or US: – The stimulus that automatically elicited the behavior (usually innate) – E.g., the food elicited the slobber Unconditioned response or UR – The behavior that is automatically elicited – Unlearned; often reflexive Conditioned stimulus or CS: – The stimulus that predicts the US – Is a learned (thus conditioned) stimulus Conditioned response or CR: – The behavior that occurs to the CS – Often very similar to the unconditioned response – Occurs because the CS predicts the US

5. Classical Conditioning Procedure

6. Order of presentation is very important!

7. The CR does not just suddenly Appear, rather it takes several trials Or sessions to learn the connection Between the CS and the US

8. Characteristics or Parameters of Classical Conditioning Relationship between UR and CR – The UR and CR are not always identical! – Often are similar, or in similar family of behavior – Can be opposite: compensatory response If predicted to go up, you respond by going down! See this with drugs: – Morphine = lower BP, heart rate, feeling of cold, less pain – CR to morphine= higher BP, HR, feel hot, more pain – What could be predictive CS for morphine?

9. Characteristics or Parameters of Classical Conditioning Strength of CR – Gradually increases with trials E.g., slobber more after each CS-US pairing – Monotonically increasing curve: levels off – Reaches an asymptote: some maximum amount of CR – Why?

10. Characteristics or Parameters of Classical Conditioning Extinction and Spontaneous recovery – Extinction: If stop CS-US pairing (CS  nothing), then the CR will also fade away – Again, must be unlearned, or habituated! Spontaneous recovery – Sometimes, when conditions are similar to CS, the animal shows the CR – Unpredictable; almost as if they “suddenly remembered” – More likely to occur when animal is stressed, tired, hungry, etc.

11. Characteristics or Parameters of Classical Conditioning Relearning: – Relearning is faster than original learning True if extinction occurred AND if just haven’t had the experience for a while – Important for drug, fear reactions! Generalization and discrimination: – Generalization: CR will occur to stimuli that are similar to the original CS – Discrimination: Can train the animal so the CR only occurs to very specific CSs

12. The Law of Effect Thorndike (1911): Animal Intelligence – Experimented with cats in a puzzle box Put cats in the box Cats had to figure out how to pull/push/move lever to get out; when out got reward The cats got faster and faster with each trial Law of Effect emerged from this research: – When a response is followed by a satisfying state of affairs, that response will increase in frequency.

13. Skinner’s version of Law of Effect Had two problems with Thorndike’s law: – Defining “satisfying state of affairs” – Defining “increase” in behavior Rewrote the law to be more specific: – Used words reinforcer and punisher – Idea of reinforcer is strengthening of relation between a R and Sr Now defined reinforcement and punishment: – A reinforcer is any stimulus which increases the probability of a response when delivered contingently – A punisher is any stimulus which decreases the probability of a response when delivered contingently – Also noted could deliver reinforcers and punishers in TWO ways: Add something: positive Take away something: negative

14. Reinforcers vs. Punishers Positive vs. Negative Reinforcer = rate of response INCREASES Punisher = rate of response DECREASES Positive: something is ADDED to environment Negative: something is TAKEN AWAY from environment Can make a 4x4 contingency table

16. More parameters: Generalization can occur: – Operant response may occur in situations similar to the one in which originally trained – Can learn to behavior in many similar settings Discrimination can occur – Operant response can be trained to very specific stimuli – Only exhibit response under specific situations Can use a cue to teach animal: – S+ or S D : contingency in place – S- or S : contingency not in place – Thus: S D : R  Sr

17. Schedules of Reinforcement: Continuous reinforcement: – Reinforce every single time the animal performs the response – Use for teaching the animal the contingency – Problem: Satiation Solution: only reinforce occasionally – Partial reinforcement – Can reinforce occasionally based on time – Can reinforce occasionally based on amount – Can make it predictable or unpredictable

18. Partial Reinforcement Schedules Fixed Ratio: every nth response is reinforced Fixed interval: the first response after x amount of time is reinforced Variable ratio: on average of every nth response is reinforced Variable interval: the first response after an average of x amount of time is reinforced

19. Variable ratio and variable interval Cumulative records

20. What is Clicker Training Popular term for training/teaching method of operant conditioning – Can be used with any living organism Gold fish Dogs Humans! Very simple process: – S +  R  S rc  S r – Cue  response  marker  reinforcement

21. Clicker training System of training/teaching that uses positive reinforcement in combination with an event marker The event marker (click) “marks” the response as correct

22. An Atypical way to train You WATCH for the behavior to occur – Wait for the behavior or approximation of that behavior – Don’t lure or force MARK the behavior: click when the behavior is occurring to signal to the animal “yes, do THAT!” After marking the behavior, REINFORCE the response!! Clicker = Precise tool: an event marker – The “click” pinpoints a behavioral instance – Informs the animal that that was the correct targeted response

23. Why not just use your voice? Clicker is unique and distinct; your voice is not. Is a novel unconditioned signal thus can be quickly paired as an event marker Used to teach NEW behaviors But: we WILL fade the clicker and replace it with cue for the response: – This could be a vocal cue, sign, etc.

24. Why should you use a clicker? Very powerful teaching tool According to Karen Pryor, clicker training – Accelerates learning – Strengthens the human-animal bond – Produces long term recall – Produces creativity and initiative – Forgives your mistakes – Generates enthusiastic learners

25. Examples of learning vs. environmental manipulation Want to keep dog out of kitchen: – Put up a gate: dog can’t get in, so behavior decreases – Does not alter the contingency of going into the kitchen – The dog has learned nothing Want you to sit in a chair – I poke you behind the knees and you fall into the chair – You increased “chair sitting” but didn’t learn chair sitting! – Your behavior is not predictable when presented with the chair – or worse yet, you are now afraid of the chair and avoid it!

26. Clicker training is based on the science of operant conditioning Emerged from area of psychology called Behavior Analysis – Experimental Analysis of Behavior – Applied Behavior Analysis Both study how living organisms learn about contingencies. – Antecedents: what is/are the setting condition(s)? – Behavior: what behavior is emitted? – Consequences: what consequences maintain the response?

27. ABC’s of Operant Conditioning Antecedents: as behavior analysts we – Identify the setting conditions – Alter the setting conditions to give us environmental control – Allows us to control what happens prior to the behavior – Can introduce cues: Learned Antecedents Behavior: Behavior Analysts target which response to increase or decrease – Must shape and control behavior within physical limits of the organism – Whether you increase or decrease a response depends on the results of that response Consequences: Behavior Analysts decide the consequence of the behavior – No consequence (ignore the response) – Reinforcer the response – Punish the response – Consequences are the Behavior Analyst’s most important tool!

28. Which consequence should we use? Punish the behavior? – Decreases the probability of the behavior – Can result in unstable responding, particularly with negative reinforcement – Can result in learned helplessness, avoidance and aggression! – Often are ethical limitations

29. Which consequence should we use? Ignore the behavior? – Decreases the probability of the behavior – Process of extinction – Two problems: Extinction burst Extinction-induced aggression

30. Which consequence should we use? Positively Reinforce a behavior: – Increases the probability of the behavior – Can reinforce the opposite of the response you are trying to decrease! – Creates a “fun” learning environment – Data suggest that organisms trained with positive reinforcement WANT to work!

31. Which consequence should we use? But wait: won’t positive reinforcement make greedy organisms? – Initially, we use continuous reinforcement – Gradually we thin out the rate of reinforcement using partial schedules of reinforcement – More and more responding or chains of behavior required to get a reward When you were kindergarten, you needed lots of reinforcers every day Now in college you can work all semester for that final reinforcer of an “A”.

32. What skills are necessary to become a good clicker trainer? Must be an excellent observer of behavior – Must be able to identify the response or component of the response Must be precise with your clicker – Must be quick and “catch” and “mark” that response – May introduce a “keep going” signal, too! Must be generous with reinforcement – When learning a new response, the animal needs lots of feedback – Reinforcement variety improves the learning process – Reinforcers must be of value to the learner (what THEY like, not what YOU like). – Barney stickers or Beer? Must use the clicker as a conditioned reinforcer: – The clicker derives value from it being tightly paired with the primary reinforcer – Use as a bridge or a “yes, keep going” signal – We will call the clicker an event marker Must be consistent! – The animal is learning the rule, so the rule must be consistent – Only when the response is solid will you move to partial reinforcement

33. Three important class components: During Monday lectures we will: – Learn the theory of operant conditioning – Learn about our organism: the domestic dog During our labs we will apply our information that we learn in the classroom with each other and with the dogs. – Deaf and deaf/blind dogs as our stable models – Rescue dogs to apply our skills Are you ready to do this?