1. Genetics

2. Heredity
Passing of traits from parent to offspring

3. Genes
Gene – segment of a chromosome that contains the heredity traits of an organism

4. Genes Basic units of biological inheritance In pairs
Contain information for making proteins

5. Allele Different or alternative form of a gene
Occupy the same place on homologous (similar) chromosomes

6. Gene Expression
Process of making DNA information available to the cell
Highly regulated by segment of DNA called a promoter

7. Gene Expression
Coding information is shared among segments known as exons
Exons are separated from each other by introns

8. Gene Expression
Number of introns in a gene varies greatly.

9. Selection Choosing parents of the next generation
Chosen parents have the desired traits

10. Selection
When reproduced, chosen traits tend to be present in offspring.

11. Natural Selection
When only the strongest animals or plant reproduce

12. Selection
Has allowed agriculturists to improve the quality of their livestock and crops.
Offspring do not always have the traits but will more often than offspring of parents without the desired traits

13. Dominant and Recessive
Dominant alleles mask the expression of recessive alleles.
Recessive traits appears in an organism only when a dominant gene for that trait is not present.

14. Homozygous When both alleles for a trait are the same
If both are recessive, trait is said to be homozygous recessive

15. Homozygous
If both are dominant, trait is said to be homozygous dominant
Recessive traits are masked unless in a homozygous recessive pair

16. Heterozygous
When the alleles for a trait are different, one dominant and one recessive

17. Phenotype Outward, physical appearance of an organism
Product of genotype and environment in which the organism lives

18. Genotype Genetic makeup of an organism
Never observable as is phenotype
May be expressed or latent

19. Latent
Characteristic is genetically present but is not expressed

20. Phenotype
Product of genotype plus the effects of the environment

21. Molecular genetics
Prior to the 1970’s, genetics was evaluated based upon the physical expression of traits

22. Molecular genetics
Mendelian or qualitative genetics – results based on qualities that individuals possessed.

23. Molecular genetics
Quantitative genetics, actual genetic code of every living individual can be mapped and evaluated

24. DNA Deoxyribonucleic Acid
Codes genetic information for all living things

25. DNA Spiraling, double stranded
Consists of a ribose sugar and a phosphate backbone on each side

26. DNA At the core are two nucleotide bases
Four nucleotides (bases) that DNA is composed of

27. DNA
Nucleotide arrangement determined the genetic code for all beings

28. DNA
Bases
Adenine - A
Guanine - G
Thymine - T
Cytosine - C

29. Bases
Always pair the same way
A with T
C with G

30. DNA
Bases are held together with Hydrogen bonds

32. Protein Synthesis
Proteins are responsible for cellular function and development
Essential for all living things

33. Protein Synthesis
DNA codes for manufacture of proteins

34. Transcription
Process of making an RNA that is complimentary to a strand of DNA

35. Transcription
In the cell nucleus, enzymes split the DNA molecule in half at the nucleotide bonds
Each single strand is known as RNA

36. Transcription When this occurs, the base Thymine changes to Uracil
One of these strands will code for protein synthesis
Known as mRNA messenger RNA

37. mRNA Carries DNA information from the nucleus to the ribosomes
When mRNA reaches the ribosomes, translation begins.

38. Translation
Process of a cell beginning to build a protein (amino acid)
Three base pair unit binds to a complimentary unit on the mRNA – tRNA

39. tRNA
Transfer RNA
Serves as the acceptor / bridge for amino acid production

40. tRNA
For every possible RNA three unit nucleotide combination, there is a corresponding amino acid
Long chains of amino acids bind to them and become proteins.

41. DNA Isolation
Process of extracting and separating DNA from all other cell materials

42. DNA Isolation Cell wall is broken open Done by grinding
Digest cellular components
Heating with a detergent

43. DNA Isolation Separate polar compounds
Dissolve lipids in the nuclear membranes
Extract and precipitate the DNA

44. DNA Isolation
Remove the top aqueous layer with a pipette and place into cold absolute alcohol
DNA may be spooled or collected onto a glass stirring rod

45. PCR Polymerase Chain Reaction
Used controlled temperatures and enzyme taq polymerase to replicate pieces of DNA

46. PCR
Allows scientists to make many copies from a few target DNA molecules
Taq polymerase is the DNA replication enzyme found in bacteria that live in hydropylilic vents in the ocean

47. PCR Thermus aquaticus These bacteria work at very high temperatures
Temperature is used to control PCR reactions

48. PCR Three step process Performed in a machine called a thermocycler
Machine alters temperature at each step of process

49. PCR
Process is repeated many times

50. PCR Process Separation 95 degrees C
Annhealing – cool to C for primers to bind to complimentary DNA regions

51. PCR Process
Extension – warm to 72 C for Taq polymerase to build a new DNA strand from primed regions

52. PCR
1st cycle= 2 copies
20th cycle= 1,048,576 copies

53. Gel Electrophoresis
Process of using an electrical field in agar to separate DNA and RNA based upon size

54. Electrophoresis First used with RNA
Provides a sequence of DNA fragments
Samples of DNA are loaded into a gel matrix

55. Electrophoresis Electric current is applied
Molecular fragments separate as they are pushed through the gel

56. Electrophoresis Fluorescent dye is used to stain the DNA fragments
Electrodes at each end of the gel create the current across the gel

57. Electrophoresis
Since DNA is negatively charged, it travels from the negative electrode toward the positive electrode

58. Electrophoresis
Heavier or larger DNA fragments move more slowly than smaller ones
Smaller fragments will travel farther across the gel during the run

59. DNA Profiling
Identifying an organism based on regions of DNA that vary greatly from one organism to another

60. DNA Profiling
Used most widely today in identifying people who cannot identify themselves
Murder victims

61. DNA Profiling Known as DNA fingerprinting
No 2 individuals have identical DNA sequences except identical twins

62. DNA Profiling
Makes it possible to identify nearly every person on earth.