1. Fields of Physical Anthropology - What makes us Human?
Paleoanthropology
Primatology
Human Variation

2. Paleoanthropology
Paleoanthropologists study bone & stone remains of our ancient ancestors from millions of years ago.

3. Primatology
Primatologists study primates and their social structures.

4. Primatology
Primatologists study the anatomy and behaviours of living primates.
May also be trained in biology and/or zoology
They observe primates in their natural habitat (participant-observation) and in the laboratory
Louis Leakey was the main paleoanthropologist who encouraged key pioneers such as Jane Goodall, Dian Fossey and Birute Galdikas in the 1960's & 1970's.

5. Leakey reasoned “if we if we found behaviour patterns similar or the same in our closest living relatives, the great apes, and humans today, then maybe those behaviours were present in the ape- like, human-like ancestor some seven million years ago...and perhaps brought those characteristics with us from that ancient, ancient past” (Goodall, 2007)

6. Dr. Jane Goodall: Primatology & Leakey Foundation clip (4mins)
Went to Tanzania & Gombe, Africa to observe chimpanzees in order to learn about their social structure.
Known for understanding the importance of Wildlife Conservation.

7. Dian Fossey
Went to Rwanda to observe and live with gorillas for 18 years, under the suggestion of Louis Leakey.
Started a campaign against gorilla poaching which led to her ultimate death.

8. Birute Galdikas Birute traveled to Borneo to observe orangutans.
She spent 40 years documenting the ecology & behaviour of them; living in a hut, with no phones or electricity
She conducted the longest continuous study of any wild animal in the world and is the world-renowned expert on orangutans.

9. Other primatologists work in laboratory settings, observing and testing primates in motion, communication patterns and teaching them to use human sign language.
Primatologists can understand specific behaviour or anatomical traits in more detail than in the wild.

10. How are Humans Similar to Primates?
Research over past 40 years has shown us:
The bond between mothers & infants is important for survival of all species
Primates have the longest infant dependency period of all mammals.
All have dominance hierarchies & aggression among the males for access to food & females
They groom one another; helps reduce stress and relates to hierarchy

11. How are Humans Similar to Primates?
All communicate through facial expressions, touch, vocalizations, and body language.
All primates have rotating forearms, grasping hands and feet, forward-facing eyes and relatively larger brains.

12. How are Humans Different to Primates?
Humans are the only primates adapted to bipedalism
Have the longest infant dependency period of any primate (we reproduce at about 20yrs old; chimps at 10 yrs old)
Only primates with a symbolic, spoken language and physical ability of speech.

13. How are Humans Different to Primates?
Only primates who live in small groups (mom, dad & kids) and mate in pairs.
We develop ideas and beliefs about the world that guide their actions; we have the ability to think and reflect on their own behaviour; we develop complex systems of morality & spirituality that influence & motivate behaviour.

14. Sue Savage-Rumbaugh & Kanzi Study of Bonobo communication
Non-human Primates using languageBonobo Communication (7mins)

15. Human Variation
The study of the physical differences and similarities of existing human populations.

16. Human Variation
The study of variation or genetic differences between people and populations, to understand the differences between people.
Based on:
Variation (every species has a lot of variety within it)
Heritability (individuals pass on traits to offspring)
Environmental fitness (individuals who are better adapted to their environment will produce more offspring & pass on traits to next generation)

17. So Human Subgroups Exist?
Race is a socially constructed term, meaning that it is something defined by our society.
The American Anthropological Association (AAA) states that race does not exist as a scientific category – that more genetic variation exist within races than between them.
The idea of race has been used in the past to justify social, economic and political inequalities to excuse hatred, cruelty and violence (e.g. Nazis, Apartheid, Ku Klux Klan)

18. Variety amongst humans can be found in a number of physical characteristics such as skin colour, texture and colour of hair, eye shape and colour, facial features, and body size.
These physical differences develop in response to natural (dark skin, short/stocky bodies) and/or cultural (mate selection, infanticide) conditions.

19. Why Variation is important for Human Survival...
Q: Does different skin colours have specific evolutionary advantages?
YES NO
All mammal populations in warmer climates have more melanin (dark pigment)
Darker skin provides protection from ultraviolet rays, which can cause skin cancer
Lighter skin absorbs more vitamin D, which allows the body to absorb calcium, a nutrient necessary for bone growth
Humans with lighter skin were more likely to survive in climates farther from the equator, with less available sunlight (Ember & Ember, 1999)
There are many fair-skinned Amazonian Indians and Southeast Asians living in the same latitudes as dark-skinned Africans.
Because skin cancer usually affects people after they have had children, skin cancer likely had little effect on the evolution of skin colour (Jablonski, 2007)
Many dark-skinned people have lived longer in Tasmania, at latitudes very far from the equator, than light-skinned populations have lived in Scandinavia (Diamond, 1994e.

20. Race vs. Ethnic Group Caucasoids of western Asia
Early concept of “race”:
Caucasoids of western Asia
Australoids of Australia, Java, Borneo
Mongoloids of Asia
Capoids or Congoloids of Africa – (Negroids)

21. All humans are members of the same species
All humans are members of the same species. Beyond physical differences, humans are more alike than different.
“...the term race” closes the door on understanding. The phrase “ethnic group” opens it or at the very least, leaves it ajar.”
Ashley Montague
American Anthropologist

22. An ethnic group is one in which members share common cultural characteristics or traditions.