1. Chapter 9 The Sun

2. 9.4 The Active Sun Sunspots: appear dark because slightly cooler than surroundings:

3. 9.4 The Active Sun Sunspots come and go, typically in a few days. Sunspots are linked by pairs of magnetic field lines:

4. 9.4 The Active Sun The rotation of the Sun drags magnetic field lines around with it, causing kinks

5. 9.4 The Active Sun The Sun has an 11-year sunspot cycle, during which sunspot numbers rise, fall, and then rise again:

6. 9.4 The Active Sun This is really a 22-year cycle, because the spots switch polarities between the northern and southern hemispheres every 11 years. Maunder minimum: few, if any, sunspots:

7. 9.4 The Active Sun Areas around sunspots are active; large eruptions may occur in photosphere. Solar prominence is large sheet of ejected gas:

8. 9.4 The Active Sun Solar flare is a large explosion on Sun’s surface, emitting a similar amount of energy to a prominence, but in seconds or minutes rather than days or weeks:

9. 9.4 The Active Sun A coronal mass ejection emits charged particles that can affect the Earth:

10. 5.7 Magnetospheres The magnetosphere is the region around the Earth where charged particles from the solar wind are trapped:

11. 5.7 Magnetospheres These charged particles are trapped in areas called the Van Allen belts, where they spiral around the magnetic field lines:

12. 5.7 Magnetospheres Near the poles, the Van Allen belts intersect the atmosphere. The charged particles can escape; when they do, they create glowing light called an aurora:

13. 9.4 The Active Sun Solar wind escapes Sun mostly through coronal holes, which can be seen in X-ray images

14. 9.4 The Active Sun Solar corona changes along with sunspot cycle; is much larger and more irregular at sunspot peak:

15. 9.3 The Solar Atmosphere Solar corona can be seen during eclipse if both photosphere and chromosphere are blocked:

16. 9.3 The Solar Atmosphere Corona is much hotter than layers below it – must have a heat source, probably electromagnetic interactions.

17. 9.2 The Solar Interior Energy transport The radiation zone is relatively transparent; the cooler convection zone is opaque:

18. 9.2 The Solar Interior The visible top layer of the convection zone is granulated, with areas of upwelling material surrounded by areas of sinking material:

19. 9.3 The Solar Atmosphere Spectral analysis can tell us what elements are present, but only in the chromosphere and photosphere:

20. 9.5 The Heart of the Sun Nuclear fusion requires that like-charged nuclei get close enough to each other to fuse. This can happen only if the temperature is extremely high – over 10 million K.

21. 9.5 The Heart of the Sun The process that powers most stars is a three-step fusion process:

22. 9.5 The Heart of the Sun Neutrinos are emitted directly from the core of the Sun, and escape, interacting with virtually nothing. Being able to observe these neutrinos would give us a direct picture of what is happening in the core. Unfortunately, they are no more likely to interact with Earth-based detectors than they are with the Sun; the only way to spot them is to have a huge detector volume and to be able to observe single interaction events.

23. 9.5 The Heart of the Sun The Sudbury neutrino observatory:

24. Summary of Chapter 9 Sun is held together by its own gravity and powered by nuclear fusion Outer layers of Sun: photosphere, chromosphere, corona. The corona is very hot. Mathematical models and helioseismology give us a picture of the interior of the Sun Sunspots occur in regions of high magnetic fields; darker spots are cooler

25. Summary of Chapter 9 Nuclear fusion converts hydrogen to helium, releasing energy Solar neutrinos come directly from the solar core, although observations have told us more about neutrinos than about the Sun