1. Chapter One Introduction to Psychology and Methods of Research

2. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1 /2 Did You Know That… One of the founders of modern psychology was such a poor student that he was actually left back a grade in school? A movement that once dominated psychology believed that psychologists should turn away from the study of the mind? A major school of psychology was inspired by the view from a train?

3. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1 /3 Did You Know That… (cont’d.) In comparison with their parents, young people today are twice as likely to classify themselves as multiracial? When it comes to hitting a baseball, your expectations about the type of pitch the pitcher will throw can get in the way of your hitting? A student successfully completed all Ph.D. requirements at Johns Hopkins University but was refused a doctorate because she was a woman?

4. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1 /4 Did You Know That… (cont’d.) Placebo effects tend to be stronger for measures that rely upon subjective ratings, such as feelings of pain, than on objective measures, such as blood pressure? You can obtain listings and abstracts of articles from major psychology journals by using your home computer (and most of it is free of charge)?

5. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1 /5 What Is Psychology? The science of behavior and mental processes. What makes psychology a scientific discipline? What is meant by “behavior” and “mental processes”?

6. Module 1.1 Foundations of Modern Psychology

7. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1 /7 Module 1.1 Preview Questions What is psychology? What are the origins of psychology? What were the major early schools of psychology? What are the major contemporary perspectives in psychology?

8. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1 /8 Origins of Psychology Greek roots –Psyche “mind” –Logos “study” or “knowledge” Ancient Greek philosophers –Socrates (ca. 469-399 B.C.) –Plato (ca. 428-348 B.C.) –Aristotle (ca. 384-332 B.C.) Confucius (ca. 551-479 B.C.)

9. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1 /9 Figure 1.1: Psychology, the Early Days: A Timeline

10. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1 /10 Figure 1.1: Psychology, the Early Days: A Timeline (cont’d.)

11. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1 /11 Early Schools of Psychology Structuralism –Wilhelm Wundt –Edward Titchner Functionalism –William James Behaviorism –John Watson –B.F. Skinner

12. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1 /12 Early Schools of Psychology (cont’d.) Gestalt Psychology –Max Wertheimer Psychodynamic Perspective –Sigmund Freud

13. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1 /13 Figure 1.2: What is This? Gestalt maxim: “The whole is greater than the sum of the parts.”

14. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1 /14 Contemporary Psychology Behavioral Perspective –Social-cognitive theory Psychodynamic Perspective Humanistic Perspective Physiological Perspective –Evolutionary psychology Cognitive Perspective Sociocultural Perspective

15. Module 1.2 Psychologists: Who They Are and What They Do

16. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1 /16 Module 1.2 Preview Questions What are the two general types of research that psychologists conduct? What are the various specialties in psychology? What changes have occurred in the ethnic and gender characteristics of psychologists over time?

17. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1 /17 Types of Psychological Research Basic Research Applied Research

18. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1 /18 Figure 1.5: Psychologists’ Areas of Specialization Source: American Psychological Association, Research Office, Current Major Field of APA Membership by Membership Status 2002, Updated April 2004.

19. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1 /19 Figure 1.6: Where Psychologists Work Source: American Psychological Association, Employment Settings for PhD Psychologists: 2001, APA Research Office. July 2003.

20. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1 /20 Major Specialty Areas Experimental psychologists –Comparative psychologists –Physiological psychologists Clinical psychologists –Role often overlaps with those of psychiatrists Counseling psychologists School psychologists Educational psychologists

21. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1 /21 Major Specialty Areas (cont’d.) Developmental psychologists Personality psychologists Social psychologists Environmental psychologists Industrial/organizational psychologists Health psychologists Consumer psychologists

22. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1 /22 Emerging Specialty Areas Neuropsychologists Geropsychologists Forensic psychologists Sports psychologists

23. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1 /23 Early Pioneers in Psychology Women pioneers –Christine Ladd-Franklin (1847-1930) –Mary Whiton Calkins (1863-1930) –Margaret Floy Washburn (1871-1939) African American pioneers –Gilbert Haven Jones (1883-1966) –Francis Sumner (1895-1954) –J. Henry Alston –Kenneth Clark (1914-2005)

24. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1 /24 Source: National Science Foundation, Division of Science Resource Statistics, Science and Engineering Degrees, by Race/Ethnicity of Recipients, 1992-2001, NSF, 04318, Project Officers Susan T. Hill, and Jean M. Johnson (Arlington, VA), April 2004. Figure 1.7: Ethnicities of Doctorate Recipients in Psychology

25. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1 /25 Figure 1.8: Women Ph.D. Recipients in Psychology Source: American Psychological Association, 2005

26. Module 1.3 Research Methods in Psychology

27. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1 /27 Module 1.3 Preview Questions What are the major objectives of science? What is the scientific method, and what are its four general steps? What are the major research methods psychologists use? What general ethical guidelines must psychologists follow in their research? What is an example of a specific ethical guideline?

28. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1 /28 Objectives of Science Description –Observations vs. inferences Explanation –Purpose of theories Prediction Control –Help gain mastery and control over own lives –Includes control over variables

29. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1 /29 Figure 1.9: General Steps in the Scientific Method

30. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1 /30 Case Study Method In-depth study of one or more individuals. Limitations –Possible problems if rely on people’s memories of past experiences –People may withhold important information –Interviewer biases or expectations may influence people’s reports or recollections.

31. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1 /31 Survey Method Information gathered from targeted groups of people. –Structured interviews –Questionnaires Goal: Generalize from sample to population –Importance of random sampling Potential problems –Social desirability bias –Volunteer bias

32. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1 /32 Naturalistic Observation Direct observation of behavior in natural environment. Problems –Observer biases –Possible unintended consequences

33. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1 /33 Correlational Method Used to examine the relationship between two variables. Correlation coefficient as a statistical measure of association –Can vary from -1.00 to +1.00 Limitation: Correlation is not causation.

34. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1 /34 Benefits of the Correlational Method Offers clues to underlying causes. Can identify groups of people at high risk for physical or behavioral problems. Increases understanding of relationships between variables or events.

35. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1 /35 Experimental Method Allows for investigation of cause-and- effect relationships. Independent variables: Manipulated variables Dependent variables: Measured variables

36. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1 /36 Experimental Method (cont’d.) Participants Independent variable: Control group Independent variable: Experimental group Random Assignment Measure dependent variable: Is there a difference?

37. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1 /37 Experimental Method (cont’d.) Controlling for placebo effects Controlling for expectancy effects –Single-blind and double-blind procedures

38. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1 /38 Code of ethics –E.g., when deception can be used. Ethics review committees Important ethical requirements –Informed consent –Confidentiality Ethical guidelines for animal research Ethical Principles in Psychological Research

39. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1 /39 Study Hypothesis –What they predicted would occur Procedure –What they did and how they did it –The experimental design Results and Discussion –What they found and what it means –Results of the study –References Exploring Psychology: Anatomy of a Research Study: The Shooter Bias

40. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1 /40 Table 1.2: Experimental Design in Police Officer’s Dilemma Study Race of Target Object African American White Gun African-American target with gun White target with gun No Gun African-American target with no gun White target with no gun

41. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1 /41 Figure 1.10: Reaction Times in Police Officer’s Dilemma Study Source: Adapted from Corel et al, 2002.

42. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1 /42 Figure 1.11: Fateful Decisions: The Role of Stereotyping Source: Adapted from Corel et al, 2002.

43. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1 /43 Anatomy of a Reference

44. Application: Module 1.4 Becoming a Critical Thinker

45. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1 /45 Features of Critical Thinking Question everything. Clarify what you mean. Avoid oversimplifying. Avoid overgeneralizing. Don’t confuse correlation with causation.

46. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1 /46 Features of Critical Thinking (cont’d.) Consider the assumptions upon which claims are based. Examine sources of claims. Question the evidence upon which claims are based. Consider alternative ways of explaining claims.

47. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1 /47 Don’t suspend your skeptical attitude when online! Most trustworthy online information comes from well-known scientific sources. Link between heavy Internet use and poorer academic performance Thinking Critically About Online Information