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The Building of European Supremacy The Western Heritage Chapter 23
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Population Trends and Migration— Europeanization of the World Europeans—20% of world’s population Almost doubled 1850-1910 Urbanization continued Railroads, steamships, better roads increased mobility 1846—1932 50 million Europeans migrate to US, Canada, S Africa, Australia, S America
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Second Industrial Revolution Belgium, France, & especially Germany begin to catch up with G Britain New industries steel, chemicals, electricity, and oil Bessemer process – mass produce steel cheaply, revolutionizes the steel industry Solway process – uses alkali production to make new soaps, dyes, and plastics Electricity—most significant change in industry
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New Industries cont’d Gottlieb Daimler —1st automobile Henry Ford – American assembly line idea made the auto accessible to the masses lead to the growth of the oil industry Europe dependent on foreign oil
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Economic Difficulties bad weather & foreign competition led to late 19th c depression Recovery comes as a result of: Improved marketing Consumer demand Imperialism Urbanization created larger markets
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Ascendancy in the Middle Class middle class—increasingly diverse owners and managers – lived like aristocracy entrepreneurs and professional people petite bourgeoisie—“white collar workers” –lower middle class Having obtained middle class status—feared losing it in bad economic times Prior to WWI—middle class sets society’s values and goals
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Nineteenth Century Cities Cities—Center of government, business, theater Paris—most famous & extensive transformation Napoleon III designed wide boulevards for political purposes–discourage riots Paris Opera, Eiffel Tower, and Basilica of the Sacred Heart built Subways make suburban living possible Home & work more separated than ever
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Urban Sanitation—Health Disaster cholera – believed caused by filth and smell, touched all classes—epidemics in 1830’s & 1840’s water and sewer systems – disposed of human waste and provided clean drinking water government involvement in public health private property could be condemned if deemed unhealthy new building regulations Discoveries by Louis Pasteur (France), Robert Koch (Germany), and Joseph Lister (Britain), led to bacterial theory of disease by late 1800s
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Solutions to Unsanitary Conditions Solution centered on cleanliness Major engineering achievement of the 2nd half of the 1800s—New water and sewer systems—slow to achieve but very effective Public health concerns led to expanded governmental power Britain: Public Health Act of 1848 France: Melun Act of 1851 private philanthropy attacked the housing problem
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Barriers for Women in Late 19th Century Social & legal disabilities in property rights, family law, and education property – until late 1800s – most women in Europe could not own property Britain’s law changes in 1882 with Married Women’s Property Act family law – divorce difficult to obtain, men legally controlled the children, and contraception was illegal Education—couldn’t attend universities until late 19th century little secondary education for women
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New Employment for Women Two major developments in economic life of women ① Expansion of number and variety of jobs new jobs – secretaries, clerks, etc. still low wages New technologies—typewriter & telephone— fostered female employment ② withdrawal of married women from labor force industries preferred unmarried women men living longer (fewer widows forced to work) social expectations of married women
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Working-Class Women Most worked in textile & garment industry subject to layoffs when demand for products slowed low wages—subject to exploitation
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Poverty and Prostitution Surplus of women seeking jobs most large 19th century cities had legal prostitution usually low-skill workers with little education / customers were working class men Many were orphans or from broken homes-- desperate
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Middle Class Women Enjoyed domestic luxury—vast expansion of consumerism—clothes, china, carpets, furniture Had sanitation and electricity Had large home—several domestic servants Beginning of “ladies” magazines religious instruction of children—prayer major part of daily life charity – worked with societies for the poor sexuality – less sexual repression due to contraceptives--smaller families
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Rise of Feminism Many women not feminist because… sensitivity to class and economic interests cared more about national unity and patriotism religious women uncomfortable with radical secularists Britain – suffrage – the movement for women to vote Millicent Fawcett – led the moderate National Union of Women’s Suffrage Societies British women given right to vote in 1918
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The Subjection of Women— written by John Stuart Mill & wife Harriet Taylor Applied logic of liberal freedom to the position of women Feminist—greatly divided over goals and tactics
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Emmeline Pankhurst Activist leader of British Suffragettes By 1910 became more radical—strikes, arson, and vandalism Imprisoned—went on hunger strikes
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Rise of Feminism cont’d political feminism – women granted right to vote in France (after World War II) and Germany (1919) Union of German Women’s Organizations – founded in 1894, supported suffrage, but more concerned about education, social, and political conditions
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Jewish Citizenship first half of 19th century, Jews in Western Europe began to gain equal citizenship still many Jews could not own land and were subject to discriminatory taxes
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Russian Jews Russia—most discriminatory against Jews Jews treated as aliens restricted areas where they could live banned them from state service excluded them from higher education pogroms – organized riots against Jewish neighborhoods, supported by the government
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Opportunities for Jews Western Europe–open to Jew—gov’t, education, intermarriage with Christians many Eastern Europe Jews migrate to Western Europe or United States anti-Semitism – increases in Western Europe late 19th c, especially in France and Germany Gives rise to Zionism
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Trade Unionism Unions legal in Britain—1871, France— 1884, Germany--1890 Unions sought higher wages and better working conditions unions often engaged in long strikes despite growth of unions, most of Europe’s labor force never unionized
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Political Parties universal male suffrage brings organized political parties Largest single group of voters—the working class Socialism opposed nationalism When WWI breaks out workers will chose nationalism over socialist feelings—more in common with their countrymen than with fellow workers in other countries.
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The First International First International—British and French trade unionists—made up of socialists, anarchists and Polish nationalists Marx supported efforts by workers & unions to work within existing political & economic processes Short-lived—but profound impact on future of European socialism Led to Marxism becoming the most important social strand of socialism
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Social Reform in Great Britain Fabian Society- most influential British socialist group – non Marxist – favored gradual, peaceful approach to social reform Leading members: Sidney & Beatrice Webb, H.G. Wells, Graham Wallas, George Bernard Shaw Believed in collective ownership on municipal level—”gas and water socialism” under Liberal Chancellor David Lloyd George, Britain regulates trade, provides unemployment benefits and health care— National Insurance Act of 1911 Conservative – House of Lords upset with the spending of the Liberal- House of Commons in the Parliament
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Edmund Bernstein’s Doctrines Known as Revisionism Argued against the correctness of Marxist theory Wrote Evolutionary Socialism Argued European standard of living was rising Ownership of capitalist industry was widespread
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French Opportunism Rejected opportunism – participation by socialists in the cabinets is rejected by Congress French socialists form their own party—Led by Jules Guesde and Jean Jaures French workers often voted Socialist, but avoided political action non-socialist labor unions looked to strikes as their main labor tactic
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Syndicalism France’s labor movement embraced the doctrines of “syndicalism” the idea of the general strike as a means of generating worker unity and power. Syndicalism expounded by Gorges Sorel in “Reflections of Violence”
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Social Democrats and Revisionism in Germany Bismarck represses German Social Democratic Party (SPD) passes social welfare programs such as accident insurance, disability and old age pensions as a conservative alternative to socialist policies The Erfurt Program – supported Marxist ideas of the collapse of capitalism, but wanted to pursue goals through legislative action, not revolution Revisionism – German socialists ideas of achieving humane social equality without having a revolution founded by Eduard Bernstein critics of Revisionism felt that evolution towards socialism would not work in militaristic, authoritative Germany
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Industrial Growth in Russia Count Sergei Witte – wanted to modernize Russian economy Most responsible for Russia’s industrialization Appointed finance minister 1892 Pursued polices: economic development, protective tariffs, high taxes, Russian currency on gold standard steel, iron, and textile industries expand as Trans-Siberian Railroad is completed (1903) social unrest –industrialization does not improve lives of the peasants— prosperous farmers known as kulaks liberal party formed by the local councils (zemstvos), wanted a constitutional monarchy to further civil liberties and social progress
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Vladimir Lenin “Two Tactics of Social Democracy” His organizational theory for revolution in Russia Urged proletariat & peasantry to unite in a socialist revolution Social Democratic Party split into two: Lenin’s faction—majority Bolsheviks moderate faction— minority Mensheviks wanted to unite workers and peasants to overthrow the tsar (idea came about in 1905, but revolution didn’t occur till 1917)
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The Revolution of 1905 Bloody Sunday – tsar’s troops violently put down a protest leading to ordinary Russians no longer trusting the tsar worker groups called the soviets, not the tsar, basically control city of St. Petersburg Nicholas II issues October Manifesto promising a constitutional government representative body, the Duma, put into place in 1907 – conservative in nature basically kept the power of the tsar in place
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The Revolution of 1905 cont’d Stolypin and Rasputin P.A. Stolypin – replaced Witte as finance minister represses socialist rebellion, including execution of rebellious peasants improves agricultural production by encouraging individual ownership assassinated by a Social Revolutionary
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The Revolution of 1905 cont’d Grigory Efimovich Rasputin – replaced Stolypin because supposedly his wife could heal the tsar’s hemophiliac son uncouth and strange, tsar’s power is undermined after 1911
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