1. The Building of European Supremacy The Western Heritage Chapter 23

2. Population Trends and Migration— Europeanization of the World  Europeans—20% of world’s population  Almost doubled 1850-1910  Urbanization continued  Railroads, steamships, better roads increased mobility  1846—1932  50 million Europeans migrate to US, Canada, S Africa, Australia, S America

3. Second Industrial Revolution  Belgium, France, & especially Germany begin to catch up with G Britain  New industries  steel, chemicals, electricity, and oil  Bessemer process – mass produce steel cheaply, revolutionizes the steel industry  Solway process – uses alkali production to make new soaps, dyes, and plastics  Electricity—most significant change in industry

4. New Industries cont’d  Gottlieb Daimler —1st automobile  Henry Ford – American  assembly line idea made the auto accessible to the masses  lead to the growth of the oil industry  Europe dependent on foreign oil

6. Economic Difficulties  bad weather & foreign competition led to late 19th c depression  Recovery comes as a result of:  Improved marketing  Consumer demand  Imperialism  Urbanization created larger markets

7. Ascendancy in the Middle Class  middle class—increasingly diverse  owners and managers – lived like aristocracy  entrepreneurs and professional people  petite bourgeoisie—“white collar workers” –lower middle class  Having obtained middle class status—feared losing it in bad economic times  Prior to WWI—middle class sets society’s values and goals

8. Nineteenth Century Cities  Cities—Center of government, business, theater  Paris—most famous & extensive transformation  Napoleon III designed wide boulevards for political purposes–discourage riots  Paris Opera, Eiffel Tower, and Basilica of the Sacred Heart built  Subways make suburban living possible  Home & work more separated than ever

10. Urban Sanitation—Health Disaster  cholera – believed caused by filth and smell, touched all classes—epidemics in 1830’s & 1840’s  water and sewer systems – disposed of human waste and provided clean drinking water  government involvement in public health  private property could be condemned if deemed unhealthy  new building regulations  Discoveries by Louis Pasteur (France), Robert Koch (Germany), and Joseph Lister (Britain), led to bacterial theory of disease by late 1800s

11. Solutions to Unsanitary Conditions  Solution centered on cleanliness  Major engineering achievement of the 2nd half of the 1800s—New water and sewer systems—slow to achieve but very effective  Public health concerns led to expanded governmental power  Britain: Public Health Act of 1848  France: Melun Act of 1851  private philanthropy attacked the housing problem

12. Barriers for Women in Late 19th Century  Social & legal disabilities in property rights, family law, and education  property – until late 1800s – most women in Europe could not own property  Britain’s law changes in 1882 with Married Women’s Property Act  family law – divorce difficult to obtain, men legally controlled the children, and contraception was illegal  Education—couldn’t attend universities until late 19th century  little secondary education for women

13. New Employment for Women  Two major developments in economic life of women ① Expansion of number and variety of jobs new jobs – secretaries, clerks, etc. still low wages  New technologies—typewriter & telephone— fostered female employment ② withdrawal of married women from labor force  industries preferred unmarried women  men living longer (fewer widows forced to work)  social expectations of married women

14. Working-Class Women  Most worked in textile & garment industry  subject to layoffs when demand for products slowed  low wages—subject to exploitation

15. Poverty and Prostitution  Surplus of women seeking jobs  most large 19th century cities had legal prostitution  usually low-skill workers with little education / customers were working class men  Many were orphans or from broken homes-- desperate

16. Middle Class Women  Enjoyed domestic luxury—vast expansion of consumerism—clothes, china, carpets, furniture  Had sanitation and electricity  Had large home—several domestic servants  Beginning of “ladies” magazines  religious instruction of children—prayer major part of daily life  charity – worked with societies for the poor  sexuality – less sexual repression due to contraceptives--smaller families

17. Rise of Feminism  Many women not feminist because…  sensitivity to class and economic interests  cared more about national unity and patriotism  religious women uncomfortable with radical secularists  Britain – suffrage – the movement for women to vote  Millicent Fawcett – led the moderate National Union of Women’s Suffrage Societies  British women given right to vote in 1918

18.  The Subjection of Women— written by John Stuart Mill & wife Harriet Taylor  Applied logic of liberal freedom to the position of women  Feminist—greatly divided over goals and tactics

19. Emmeline Pankhurst  Activist leader of British Suffragettes  By 1910 became more radical—strikes, arson, and vandalism  Imprisoned—went on hunger strikes

22. Rise of Feminism cont’d  political feminism – women granted right to vote in France (after World War II) and Germany (1919)  Union of German Women’s Organizations – founded in 1894, supported suffrage, but more concerned about education, social, and political conditions

23. Jewish Citizenship  first half of 19th century, Jews in Western Europe began to gain equal citizenship  still many Jews could not own land and were subject to discriminatory taxes

24. Russian Jews  Russia—most discriminatory against Jews  Jews treated as aliens  restricted areas where they could live  banned them from state service  excluded them from higher education  pogroms – organized riots against Jewish neighborhoods, supported by the government

25. Opportunities for Jews  Western Europe–open to Jew—gov’t, education, intermarriage with Christians  many Eastern Europe Jews migrate to Western Europe or United States  anti-Semitism – increases in Western Europe late 19th c, especially in France and Germany  Gives rise to Zionism

26. Trade Unionism  Unions legal in Britain—1871, France— 1884, Germany--1890  Unions sought higher wages and better working conditions  unions often engaged in long strikes  despite growth of unions, most of Europe’s labor force never unionized

27. Political Parties  universal male suffrage brings organized political parties  Largest single group of voters—the working class  Socialism opposed nationalism  When WWI breaks out workers will chose nationalism over socialist feelings—more in common with their countrymen than with fellow workers in other countries.

28. The First International  First International—British and French trade unionists—made up of socialists, anarchists and Polish nationalists  Marx supported efforts by workers & unions to work within existing political & economic processes  Short-lived—but profound impact on future of European socialism  Led to Marxism becoming the most important social strand of socialism

29. Social Reform in Great Britain  Fabian Society- most influential British socialist group – non Marxist – favored gradual, peaceful approach to social reform  Leading members: Sidney & Beatrice Webb, H.G. Wells, Graham Wallas, George Bernard Shaw  Believed in collective ownership on municipal level—”gas and water socialism”  under Liberal Chancellor David Lloyd George, Britain regulates trade, provides unemployment benefits and health care— National Insurance Act of 1911  Conservative – House of Lords upset with the spending of the Liberal- House of Commons in the Parliament

30. Edmund Bernstein’s Doctrines  Known as Revisionism  Argued against the correctness of Marxist theory  Wrote Evolutionary Socialism  Argued European standard of living was rising  Ownership of capitalist industry was widespread

31. French Opportunism Rejected  opportunism – participation by socialists in the cabinets is rejected by Congress  French socialists form their own party—Led by Jules Guesde and Jean Jaures  French workers often voted Socialist, but avoided political action  non-socialist labor unions looked to strikes as their main labor tactic

32. Syndicalism  France’s labor movement embraced the doctrines of “syndicalism” the idea of the general strike as a means of generating worker unity and power.  Syndicalism expounded by Gorges Sorel in “Reflections of Violence”

33. Social Democrats and Revisionism in Germany  Bismarck represses German Social Democratic Party (SPD)  passes social welfare programs such as accident insurance, disability and old age pensions as a conservative alternative to socialist policies  The Erfurt Program – supported Marxist ideas of the collapse of capitalism, but wanted to pursue goals through legislative action, not revolution  Revisionism – German socialists ideas of achieving humane social equality without having a revolution founded by Eduard Bernstein  critics of Revisionism felt that evolution towards socialism would not work in militaristic, authoritative Germany

34. Industrial Growth in Russia  Count Sergei Witte – wanted to modernize Russian economy  Most responsible for Russia’s industrialization  Appointed finance minister 1892  Pursued polices: economic development, protective tariffs, high taxes, Russian currency on gold standard  steel, iron, and textile industries expand as Trans-Siberian Railroad is completed (1903)  social unrest –industrialization does not improve lives of the peasants— prosperous farmers known as kulaks  liberal party formed by the local councils (zemstvos), wanted a constitutional monarchy to further civil liberties and social progress

35. Vladimir Lenin  “Two Tactics of Social Democracy”  His organizational theory for revolution in Russia  Urged proletariat & peasantry to unite in a socialist revolution  Social Democratic Party split into two:  Lenin’s faction—majority  Bolsheviks  moderate faction— minority  Mensheviks  wanted to unite workers and peasants to overthrow the tsar (idea came about in 1905, but revolution didn’t occur till 1917)

36. The Revolution of 1905  Bloody Sunday – tsar’s troops violently put down a protest leading to ordinary Russians no longer trusting the tsar  worker groups called the soviets, not the tsar, basically control city of St. Petersburg  Nicholas II issues October Manifesto promising a constitutional government  representative body, the Duma, put into place in 1907 – conservative in nature basically kept the power of the tsar in place

38. The Revolution of 1905 cont’d  Stolypin and Rasputin  P.A. Stolypin – replaced Witte as finance minister  represses socialist rebellion, including execution of rebellious peasants  improves agricultural production by encouraging individual ownership  assassinated by a Social Revolutionary

39. The Revolution of 1905 cont’d  Grigory Efimovich Rasputin –  replaced Stolypin because supposedly his wife could heal the tsar’s hemophiliac son  uncouth and strange, tsar’s power is undermined after 1911