1. Learning and Memory Can they be understood separately?
Learning is the process of acquiring new information, while memory refers to the persistence of learning in a state that can be revealed at a later time
Memory is any indication that learning has persisted over time. It is our ability to store and retrieve information; to remember (recognize or recall) things we have experienced, imagined, or learned

2. Memory
The Atkinson-Shiffrin information-processing or multi-store memory model sees memory as comprised of three processes
Encoding
Storage
Retrieval

3. The Multi-Store Memory Model

4. Atkinson and Shiffrin’s Multi-Store Memory Model (1968)
Memory consists of three stages based on how long memory is retained (duration) and how much can be stored (capacity). Three “stages” of memory
Sensory register
Short-term memory (working memory)
Long-term memory

5. Sensory Register (aka Sensory Storage aka Sensory Memory)
A sensory-based, temporary representation of input. The first stop for all sensory information
Iconic (visual) Less than .5 seconds
Echoic (auditory) Two to three seconds
Decays quickly
Immense capacity limited only by our sensory system’s abilities

6. Sensory memory: Iconic store
Sperling (1960) determined the capacity and duration of the iconic (visual) store with a series of ingenious experiments
Full versus partial report method

7. Sensory memory: Iconic memory
The partial report technique demonstrated that the capacity of iconic memory is quite large
Participants could perceive much more than they could verbally report
Information was being read out from a rapidly decaying icon

8. Observations about Sensory Register/Storage/Memory
Sensory memory holds briefly presented stimuli to increase the chance that they will be present long enough to be attended to…
…when this happens the stimuli enters short term/working memory
Allows for “stream of consciousness”, rather than a series of disconnected images and sounds (e.g. film)

9. Short-term Memory (often also referred to as Working Memory)
The part of memory where information from sensory memory and long-term memory are made conscious
Information is maintained in STM via maintenance rehearsal. Without rehearsal there is a rapid decay, e.g., repeating an unfamiliar phone number until you dial it
Primarily a process of acoustic encoding

10. Short-term Memory and Acoustic Coding (and interference)
Experiments prove phenomena known as phonological similarity effect
Which list is most difficult to recall? (Conrad)
E, F, M, P N
D, P, T, Z, V
W, L, C, S, R
Which of these lists is most difficult to recall? (Baddeley,et.al)
large, big, immense, huge, obese
fish, door, awkward, map, love
fan, can, plan, ran, tan

11. ST/Working Memory - Capacity and Chunking
George Miller (1956) demonstrated that short- term memory capacity is about seven (plus or minus two) units of information (phone #)
This can be extended through a process known as chunking (e.g. telephone numbers). Example of chunking
Recall the following sequence of letters….
F D R T V F B I J F K C I A
The sequence when chunked into meaningful units…
FDR TV FBI JFK CIA

12. ST/Working Memory - Capacity
Word-length effect A set of monosyllabic words are recalled more easily than a set of polysyllabic words
wit
sum
harm
bag
top
university
opportunity
aluminum
constitutional
auditorium

13. ST/Working Memory - Duration
Information in STM decays rapidly without rehearsal (Peterson,1959), between seconds
Ability to report novel consonant strings (TFDHG) decreases if subjects are prevented from rehearsing (e.g., count backwards by 3 from 309)
Correct responses reduced to below 10% after 18 seconds

14. Working Memory v. Atkinson and Shiffrin’s Short Term Memory
Baddeley and Hitch, 1974
A limited capacity store for retaining information over a period of seconds to minutes, and used for performing mental operations. Information can be acted on and processed, not merely maintained by rehearsal
Sentence perception and comprehension
Mental arithmetic
Visual-spatial sketchpad and phonological loop

15. Long-term Memory In long-term memory
Vast amounts of information may be stored for many years. No known limits to capacity or duration of LTM
Most information in LTM is encoded on the basis of elaborative rehearsal
Process of relating new information to information already stored in memory
Meaning (semantic encoding) is assigned to new information and then linked to as much existing knowledge as possible

16. Types of Long-Term Memory
Explicit (declarative) v. Implicit memory
Semantic memory Memory for general facts and concepts not linked to a specific time
Episodic memory Memory for personal events in a specific time and place
Procedural memory & conditioned response

17. Types of Long-Term Memory
Explicit (declarative) v. Implicit memory

18. Rehearsal: Memory and Forgetting Curves
Learning usually requires rehearsal (overlearning) or conscious repetition
Ebbinghaus studied rehearsal by using nonsense syllables: TUV YOF GEK XOZ. Introduced learning and forgetting curves
Concept of massed v. distributed practice (spacing effect)

19. Memory Phenomena
Serial Position Effect – Primacy and recency the first and last items learned are most easily remembered (Ebbinghaus)

20. More Memory Phenomena Autobiographical memory (Self-reference effect)
Recollection of events in our life
More recent events are easier to recall
Extraordinary memory (super-memorists)
Includes eidetic imagery (photographic memory)
Usually due to well-developed memory techniques
Resource: The Brain: Teaching Modules
Tip of the Tongue phenomena

21. Mood and Memory Context dependent memory
Recall of information is better if environment is the same as when information was learned. Examples?
State-dependent memory
Recall of information is better if person is in the same physiological state as when information was learned
Mood congruent memory
Network theory

22. Biology of Memory
Flashbulb memory Heightened emotions (stress-related or otherwise) make for stronger memories, e.g. 9/11
Early memories. Examples?
Role of limbic system - amygdala
However, continued stress may disrupt memory
Scientific American Frontiers . Don't Forget. Watch Online | PBS

23. Biology of Memory (and Learning)
In Aplysia, Kandel (1982) showed that serotonin release from neurons increased after conditioning
Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) = enhancement of synapses after learning (Lynch, 2002). Increases in neurotransmitter release leads to strengthening of synapses
Where are memories stored?
Different parts of the brain are specialized for different types of memory information
Primary role of hippocampus in forming

24. Where are Memories Stored?

25. Memory and Forgetting Decay Theory
Memories deteriorate because of the passage of time
Amnesia
Memory loss caused by accidents, surgery, poor diet, or disease (dementia/Alzheimer’s)
Retrograde and anterograde
Psychogenic (v. organic) amnesia
Scientific American Frontiers . Don't Forget. Resource: The Brain: Teaching Modules

26. Memory and Forgetting
After losing his hippocampus in surgery, patient Henry M. (HM) remembered events before the operation but could not make new memories. Types of amnesia? Causes?
Unkown White Male
Scientific American Frontiers . Don't Forget.
Resource: The Brain: Teaching Modules

27. Memory The Story of Clive Wearing
Accomplished musician suffered a viral infection and subsequent damage to his brain
His capacity to recall autobiographic details as well as general knowledge is severely limited
Resource: The Mind: Teaching Modules

28. The Story of Clive Wearing
The hippocampus, the structure we use for recall and laying down new thoughts, was profoundly damaged due to infection
Clive lost episodic memory, that is, memory for events
He can remember some general information (semantic memory)

29. Memory and Forgetting Infantile and Childhood Amnesia
Generally poor memory for events prior to age 2-3
Due to underdevelopment of brain structures (hippocampus) and lack of cognitive abilities
Role of language in memory?

30. Forgetting: Retroactive and Proactive Interference
Retroactive Interference occurs when new information interferes with information already in memory
Proactive interference occurs when information already in memory interferes with new information

31. Memory and Forgetting Alzheimer’s Disease and Dementia
Scientific American Frontiers . Don't Forget. Resource: The Brain: Teaching Modules

32. (Re)Constructive Memory
Reconstructive memory (Loftus)
Memories can be altered with each retrieval
Memory levelling and sharpening
Memory is affected by one’s schema, prejudices, experiences, suggestion, new information and/or context
Misinformation effect (confabulation)
Misattribution (source amnesia)
Elizabeth Loftus’ car crash and implanted memories research
Don't Forget.
Loftus’ Curriculum Vitae

33. (Re)Constructive Memory and Eyewitness Testimony
Eyewitness testimony (Loftus)
Shown to be unreliable
People’s recall for events may be influenced by what they heard or imagined (e.g. post-event information)
Role of schema

34. Repressed Memory
Recovered memories (Repressed memory or Motivated Forgetting)
Involves the recall of long-forgotten dramatic events
May also be the result of suggestion, post-event information, imagination inflation (False Repressed Memory Syndrome)
More recent research supports that some memories can be repressed and recalled later. It remains controversial