1. Mrs. Robinson World History iMater

3. Enlightenment philosophers (philosophes) changed the way that people thought during the 1700’s. Philosophes argued about making government, absolute rulers, and economics better for society.

8. France’s social conditions played a large part in the downfall of France. France went through a near-collapse of government finances. King Louis XVI called a meeting of the Three Estates to raise taxes on the poor.

9. The meeting started in Versailles in 1789 but already had problems with voting. The third estate demanded that each representative have one vote (outnumber 1 st and 2 nd ) The King denied the voting and the third estate quickly made the National Assembly  wrote a new constitution for the people.

15. The National Assembly abolished the monarchy and declared France a republic. They were divided though, about the fate of the King. In January 1793, the King was condemned to die, and was beheaded on a guillotine.

21. After the Reign of Terror, a council was chosen to rule France. It consisted of a Directory and a legislature  era of corruption and mistrust. The Directory faced many political enemies.

23. It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair, we had everything before us, we had nothing before us, we were all going direct to heaven, we were all going direct the other way -in short, the period was so far like the present period, that some of its noisiest authorities insisted on its being received, for good or for evil, in the superlative degree of comparison only. Charles DickensCharles Dickens, A Tale of Two Cities English novelist (1812 - 1870)

25. After the coup d’etat, Napoleon proclaimed a new government in France. A consul was made with Napoleon as the leader. Napoleon had absolute power and controlled the consulate.

28. From 1807 to 1812, Napoleon controlled Europe almost completely. His empire was divided into 3 areas: French Empire, dependent states, & allied states. Dependent states: Allied states:

30. Nationalism

32. Napoleon’s downfall came when he tried to invade Russia in 1812. The Russian army refused to fight, instead they retreated into Russia The Russian had burned down their own villages and food. WHY? Napoleon arrived in Moscow but had to retreat back to Poland, defeated by Russia’s winter.

33. The cold was so intense that digging ourselves in the snow was no longer supportable. Bad luck to those who fell asleep by a campfire! Furthermore, disorganization was perceptibly gaining ground in the Guard. One constantly found men who, overcome by the cold, had been forced to drop out and had fallen to the ground, too weak or too numb to stand. Ought one to help them along - which practically meant carrying them? They begged one to let them alone. There were bivouacs all along the road - ought one to take them to a campfire? Once these poor wretches fell asleep they were dead. If they resisted the craving for sleep, another passer by would help them along a little farther, thus prolonging their agony for a short while, but not saving them, for in this condition the drowsiness engendered by cold is irresistibly strong. Sleep comes inevitably, and to sleep is to die. I tried in vain to save a number of these unfortunates. The only words they uttered were to beg me, for the love of God, to go away and let them sleep. To hear them, one would have thought sleep was their salvation. Unhappily, it was a poor wretch's last wish. But at least he ceased to suffer, without pain or agony. Gratitude, and even a smile, was imprinted on his discolored lips. What I have related about the effects of extreme cold, and of this kind of death by freezing, is based on what I saw happen to thousands of individuals. The road was covered with their corpses." [