2. Chapter 2 Section 3 & Chapter 2 Section 4

3.  Believe it or not, carbon is so interesting, there is an ENTIRE branch of chemistry designed to study it!  Organic Chemistry  Each electron in carbon can form Covalent bonds with almost any other element

4.  More importantly, Carbon can bond with itself!  Chains, rings, single bonds, double bonds, triple bonds

5.  Macromolecules: Literally means “Large” Molecules (aka: Organic molecules)  Macromolecules are created when small units (Monomers) join together to form large units (Polymers)  There are 4 basic Macromolecules in biology: 1. Carbohydrates 2. Lipids 3. Nucleic Acids 4. Proteins

6.  These are the main energy source for living beings  Plants and some animals use carbs for structure too!  They are also called: SUGARS  Made of Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen  Usually in a 1:2:1 ratio  Ex: 6 Carbon, 12 Hydrogen, 6 Oxygen  Extra sugar is stored as starch (a type of complex carbohydrate)

7.  1 Monomer of sugar = 1 monosaccharide  Examples = Glucose, fructose  A large chain (polymer) of monosaccharides is a polysaccharide  Polysaccharide is a fancy name for starch Animal starches = glycogen Plant starches = cellulose

8.  These are FATS, OILS, and WAXES  Mostly made of Carbon and Hydrogen joined into long chains  Functions include: long-term energy storage, insulation, found in cell membranes, steroids  Two forms:  SATURATED LIPIDS- have NO double bonds between Carbon atoms Solid at room temperature  UNSATURATED LIPIDS - have at least one double bond between carbons Liquid at room temperature

9.  1 Monomer of fat = 1 glycerol + 3 fatty acids  There is no real “polymer” of lipids, though the monomers may join together to form different structures

10.  These are the genetic code for living organisms  Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)  Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)  Made of Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Phosphorus  Every single cell has a complete set of DNA and RNA  Monomers of nucleic acids may also store energy for chemical reactions

11.  1 Monomer of a Nucleic Acid = 1 Nucleotide  Examples: Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine, and Guanine  A large chain (polymer) of nucleotides is called a Nucleic Acid  Examples: RNA or DNA  Nucleotides consist of 3 parts:  One Nitrogen Base  One 5 - Carbon Sugar  One Phosphate Group

12.  These do everything else in the body!  Made of Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, sometimes Sulfur  Functions include:  Transporting molecules around the body or in and out of cells  Colorful pigments  Antibodies in the blood, which fight infection  Structural, such as the proteins that make up muscles or hair  Speeding up chemical reactions (Enzymes)  The Shape of a protein is incredibly important

13.  1 Monomer of a Protein = 1 amino acid  A large chain (polymer) of amino acids is called a Polypeptide  Polypeptide is a fancy name for protein  Tiny proteins are simply called “peptides”  Amino acids have 3 parts:  Amino group (Always the same)  Carboxyl group (Always the same)  R-group (1 of 20)  Because there are 20 different R- groups, there are 20 different amino acids

15. MonomerPolymer CarbohydratesMonosaccharidesPolysaccharides LipidsFatty Acids and Glycerol Nucleic AcidsNucleotideNucleic Acid ProteinAmino AcidPolypeptide

17.  A process that changes or transforms one set of chemicals into another  Some are slow Iron + Oxygen  Iron oxide (aka: Rust) (Reactants)(Product)  Some are fast Vinegar + Baking Soda  volcano  Some chemical reactions release energy, others absorb (require) it.  Release as heat: 2H 2 O  2H 2 + O 2 Example: Paper combusting to ash Exothermic – heat releasing  Requires heat to happen: 2H 2 + O 2  2H 2 O Example: Pop and Shake Ice Packs become cold Endothermic – heat absorbing

18.  In order to stay alive, we reactions that both absorb and release energy  Energy used in reactions comes from food Normally Sugar Ex 1: Building starch for storage after a meal absorbs energy Ex 2: Breaking down sugar in cells releases energy to help the cell function

19.  Activation energy = the amount of energy required to get a reaction started  IE: Holding flame to paper for combustion  Once the reaction is started, it continues until the reactants are used up

20.  Catalyst (General definition)  Any substance that speeds up the rate of a reaction by lowering the activation energy required  Catalysts in living things are called:  ENZYMES  Enzymes are PROTEINS that speed up biological reactions  Reactants join together on an enzyme and a chemical reaction occurs  Once the reaction is finished, the enzyme can go start another chemical reaction with new reactants  In other words, enzymes are reusable

21.  Reactants of enzyme-catalyzed reactions are called:  SUBSTRATES  When the substrates join together at an ACTIVE SITE of an enzyme, they create an:  ENZYME-SUBSTRATE COMPLEX  A complex is a temporary structure that breaks apart when not in use  Enzymes are substrate specific  An enzyme made to fit substrates for one particular reaction will not work with different substrates for a different reaction  Because of the specific fit, the ES Complex is called a LOCK AND KEY COMPLEX

22. The picture below is a much more simplified version of the picture to the right

23.  Enzymes are delicate  They work best at specific pHs  They work best at about 37 °C (Body temperature)  When conditions are not optimal, enzymes change shape and lose function  This process is called denaturization  Enzymes can be turned “on” or “off” by other proteins depending on how many are needed at that exact moment

24.  Describe the role of energy in chemical reactions?  What are enzymes and how are they important in living things?  Describe how enzymes work.