1. Experiment Basics: Variables Psych 231: Research Methods in Psychology

2. Class Experiment Print out the Class experiment (listed on syllabus page) exercise and bring it to labs this weekClass experiment Turn in your data sheets (pass to front) I will analyze the data and the results will be discussed in labs this week Turn in your consent forms Quiz 5 (chapter 4) is due Friday

3. Exam 1 Mean: 77.9% Median: 79% Range: 57-93 Results If you want to go over your exam set up a time to see me

4. Exam 1 Common errors: Four Cannons of scientific method (& pg 7- 10 of the textbook)

5. Exam 1 Common errors: A researcher examined the relationship between music and mood. He presented two groups of participants the same video clips but the two groups received different musical soundtracks. Following the presentation of the videos, participants completed a questionnaire designed to measure their current mood. (1)Identify the Research Design used in the study (2)Identify a major advantage of using this research design for this study (3)Identify a major disadvantage/limitation of using this research design for this study. Experiment: manipulated the music (IV) and measured the effects on mood (DV). Major advantage: ability to make causal claims Major disadvantage: (several possible answers, generalizability)

6. So you want to do an experiment? What behavior you want to examine Identified what things (variables) you think affects that behavior You’ve got your theory.

7. So you want to do an experiment? You’ve got your theory. Next you need to derive predictions from the theory. These should be stated as hypotheses. In terms of conceptual variables or constructs Conceptual variables are abstract theoretical entities Consider our class experiment Theory & Hypotheses: What you try to recognize & how connected to your social network you feel. Social vs. Non-social websites Cell phone presence

8. So you want to do an experiment? You’ve got your theory. Next you need to derive predictions from the theory. Now you need to design the experiment. You need to operationalize your variables in terms of how they will be: Manipulated Measured Controlled Be aware of the underlying assumptions connecting your constructs to your operational variables Be prepared to justify all of your choices

9. Constants vs. Variables Characteristics of the psychological situations Constants: have the same value for all individuals in the situation Variables: have potentially different values for each individual in the situation Variables in our experiment: Connectedness to social network Type of website Recognition memory performance Time for unscrambling Kind of cell phone present …

10. Variables Conceptual vs. Operational Conceptual variables (constructs) are abstract theoretical entities Operational variables are defined in terms within the experiment. They are concrete so that they can be measured or manipulated Conceptual Social connectedness Social concepts/words Recognition Memory Operational Cell phone presence or absence Websites social or non- social Word scramble test

11. Many kinds of Variables Independent variables (explanatory) Dependent variables (response) Extraneous variables Control variables Random variables Confound variables Correlational designs have similar functions

12. Many kinds of Variables Independent variables (explanatory) Dependent variables (response) Extraneous variables Control variables Random variables Confound variables

13. Independent Variables The variables that are manipulated by the experimenter (sometimes called factors) Each IV must have at least two levels Remember the point of an experiment is comparison Combination of all the levels of all of the IVs results in the different conditions in an experiment

14. Independent Variables 1 factor, 2 levels Condition 1Condition 2 Factor A 1 factor, 3 levels 2 factors, 2 x 3 levels Cond 1 Factor A Cond 3Cond 2 Cond 1 Factor B Cond 3Cond 2 Factor A Cond 4Cond 6Cond 5

15. Manipulating your independent variable Methods of manipulation Straightforward Stimulus manipulation - different conditions use different stimuli Instructional manipulation – different groups are given different instructions Staged Event manipulation – manipulate characteristics of the context, setting, etc. Subject (Participant) – there are (pre-existing mostly) differences between the subjects in the different conditions leads to a quasi-experiment Presence or absence of cell phone Social vs. non-social websites

16. Choosing your independent variable Choosing the right levels of your independent variable Review the literature Do a pilot experiment Consider the costs, your resources, your limitations Be realistic Pick levels found in the “real world” Pay attention to the range of the levels Pick a large enough range to show the effect Aim for the middle of the range

17. Identifying potential problems These are things that you want to try to avoid by careful selection of the levels of your IV (may be issues for your DV as well). Demand characteristics Experimenter bias Reactivity Floor and ceiling effects (range effects)

18. Demand characteristics Characteristics of the study that may give away the purpose of the experiment May influence how the participants behave in the study Examples: Experiment title: The effects of horror movies on mood Obvious manipulation: Having participants see lists of words and pictures and then later testing to see if pictures or words are remembered better Biased or leading questions: Don’t you think it’s bad to murder unborn children?

19. Experimenter Bias Experimenter bias (expectancy effects) The experimenter may influence the results (intentionally and unintentionally) E.g., Clever HansClever Hans One solution is to keep the experimenter (as well as the participants) “blind” as to what conditions are being tested

20. Knowing that you are being measured Just being in an experimental setting, people don’t always respond the way that they “normally” would. Cooperative Defensive Non-cooperative Reactivity

21. Floor effects A value below which a response cannot be made As a result the effects of your IV (if there are indeed any) can’t be seen. Imagine a task that is so difficult, that none of your participants can do it.

22. Ceiling effects When the dependent variable reaches a level that cannot be exceeded So while there may be an effect of the IV, that effect can’t be seen because everybody has “maxed out” Imagine a task that is so easy, that everybody scores a 100% To avoid floor and ceiling effects you want to pick levels of your IV that result in middle level performance in your DV

23. Range effects Floor: A value below which a response cannot be made Floor As a result the effects of your IV (if there are indeed any) can’t be seen. Imagine a task that is so difficult, that none of your participants can do it. Ceiling: When the dependent variable reaches a level that cannot be exceeded Ceiling So while there may be an effect of the IV, that effect can’t be seen because everybody has “maxed out” Imagine a task that is so easy, that everybody scores a 100% To avoid floor and ceiling effects you want to pick levels of your IV that result in middle level performance in your DV