1. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 1 13—Gender Influences on Gender Development Gender Stereotypes, Similarities, and DifferencesGender Stereotypes, Similarities, and Differences Gender-Role Classification Summary

2. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 2 13—Gender Gender –The psychological and sociocultural dimensions of being female or male. Gender identity –The sense of being female or male, which most children acquire by the time they are 3 years old. Gender role –A set of expectations that prescribes how females and males should think, act, and feel.

3. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 3 Influences on Gender Development Biological Influences –Heredity and Hormones In the 1920s researchers confirmed the existence of the human sex chromosomes (X and Y), which contain the genetic material that determines a person’s sex. Estrogens and androgens, the two classes of hormones that have the most influence on gender, occur in both females and males in different concentrations.

4. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 4 Influences on Gender Development –Heredity and Hormones (continued) Estrogens: Produced mainly by the ovaries, primarily influence development of female physical sex characteristics and help regulate the menstrual cycle (estradiol is an estrogen). Androgens: Produced by the adrenal glands in males and females and the testes in males, primarily promote development of male genitals and secondary sex characteristics (testosterone is an androgen).

5. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 5 Influences on Gender Development – Heredity and Hormones (continued) Unusual levels of sex hormones during early fetal development may result in anatomical anomalies and problems in gender development, such as: –Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) –Androgen-insensitive males –Pelvic field defect In addition, inappropriate sex reassignment may also occur after birth.

6. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 6 Influences on Gender Development Biological Influences (continued) –Evolutionary Psychology and Gender Holds that evolutionary adaptation during the evolution of humans produced psychological differences between males and females (Buss, 1995, 2000, 2004). –Males evolved dispositions that favor violence, competition, and risk taking. –Females evolved dispositions devoted to parenting and choosing mates who can provide their offspring with resources and protection.

7. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 7 Influences on Gender Development Biological Influences (continued) –Interactionist View: It means different things to different people: Certain environmental conditions are required before preprogrammed dispositions appear. A particular environment will have different effects, depending on the child’s predispositions. Children shape their environments, and vice versa. Throughout development, males and females actively construct their own versions of acceptable masculine and feminine behavior patterns.

8. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 8 Influences on Gender Development Social Influences –Psychoanalytic and Social Cognitive Theories Psychoanalytic theory of gender stems from Freud’s view that preschool children develop a sexual attraction to the opposite-sex parent, then at 5 to 6 years of age renounce the attraction because of anxious feelings, subsequently identifying with the same-sex parent and unconsciously adopting the same-sex parent’s characteristics.

9. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 9 Influences on Gender Development – Psychoanalytic and Social Cognitive Theories (continued) Social cognitive theory of gender emphasizes that children’s gender development occurs through observation and imitation of gender behavior and through rewards and punishments they experience for gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate behavior.

10. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 10 Influences on Gender Development Parents Influence Their Children’s Gender Development by Action and Example Refer to Figure 13.1

11. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 11 Influences on Gender Development Social Influences –Parental Influences Parents are one of many socializing agents through which the individual learns gender roles; both mothers and fathers are psychologically important in children’s gender development. –Mothers are responsible for nurturance and care. –Fathers engage in playful interaction and are responsible for ensuring children conform to cultural norms.

12. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 12 Influences on Gender Development Social Influences (continued) –Peer Influences Parents provide the earliest discrimination of gender roles in development, but before long, peers join the societal process of responding to and modeling masculine and feminine behavior. Peer demands for conformity to gender roles is especially intense during adolescence.

13. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 13 Influences on Gender Development Expectations for Boys and Girls Refer to Figure 13.2

14. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 14 Influences on Gender Development Social Influences (continued) –Schools and Teachers There is evidence of gender bias against both males and females in schools (DeZolt & Hull, 2001). –Gender and the Media The messages carried by the media about what is appropriate or inappropriate for males and for females also are important influences on gender development (Calvert, 1999; Pike & Jennings, 2005; Purcheco & Hrutado, 2001).

15. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 15 Influences on Gender Development Developmental Changes in Percentage of Time Spent in Same-Sex and Mixed-Group Settings Refer to Figure 13.3

16. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 16 Influences on Gender Development Cognitive Influences –Cognitive Developmental Theory of Gender In this view, children’s gender-typing occurs after they think of themselves as boys and girls. Once they consistently conceive of themselves as male or female, children prefer activities, objects, and attitudes consistent with this label. –Gender constancy: The understanding that sex remains the same, even though activities, clothing, and hair style might change.

17. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 17 Influences on Gender Development Cognitive Influences (continued) –Gender Schema Theory According to this theory, gender-typing emerges as children gradually develop gender schemas of what is gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate in their culture. –Schema: A cognitive structure, a network of associations that guides an individual’s perceptions. –Gender schema: Organizes the world in terms of female and male.

18. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 18 Influences on Gender Development The Development of Gender-Typed Behavior According to the Cognitive Development and Gender Schema Theories of Gender Development Refer to Figure 13.4

19. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 19 Influences on Gender Development Gender Stereotyping –Gender Schemas of Occupations Despite the fact that increasing numbers of men and women are now entering jobs historically associated with the other sex, many occupations in the American culture remain strongly “gendered.”

20. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 20 Influences on Gender Development Children’s Judgments about the Competence of Men and Women in Gender-Stereotyped Occupations Refer to Figure 13.5

21. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 21 Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 1 Discuss the main biological, social, and cognitive influences on gender –Review How can gender, gender identity, and gender role be defined? What are some biological influences on gender development? What are some social influences on gender development? What are some cognitive influences on gender development?

22. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 22 Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 1 –Reflect Which theory of gender development do you like best? What might an eclectic theoretical view of gender development be like? (You might want to review the discussion of an eclectic theoretical orientation in Chapter 2.)

23. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 23 Gender Stereotypes, Similarities, and Differences Gender Stereotyping –Gender Stereotypes Broad categories that reflect impressions and beliefs about what behavior is appropriate for females and males. –Stereotyping across Cultures Gender stereotyping is pervasive (Best, 2001; Kite, 2001).

24. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 24 Gender Stereotypes, Similarities, and Differences Gender Similarities and Differences –Physical Similarities and Differences From conception on, females have a longer life expectancy than males and are less likely to develop physical or mental disorders; estrogen is a protective factor. Males have twice the risk of coronary disease; they have faster clotting but also higher blood pressure. Women have twice the body fat (concentrated around breasts and hips; male fat goes to the abdomen).

25. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 25 Gender Stereotypes, Similarities, and Differences Physical Similarities and Differences (continued) Brain differences: –Female brains, though smaller, have more folds, allowing for more surface brain tissue. –A part of the hypothalamus responsible for sexual behavior is larger in men than women. –Portions of the corpus callosum, through which the brain’s hemispheres communicate, are larger in females than males.

26. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 26 Gender Stereotypes, Similarities, and Differences –Physical Similarities and Differences (continued) Brain (continued): –An area of the parietal lobe that functions in visuospatial skills is larger in males than females. –The areas of the brain involved in emotional expression show more metabolic activity in females than males.

27. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 27 Gender Stereotypes, Similarities, and Differences Gender Similarities and Differences (continued) –Cognitive Similarities and Differences Maccoby (1987) said that the research evidence suggests that verbal differences between females and males have virtually disappeared but math and visuospatial differences still exist. Hyde believes that the cognitive differences between females and males have been exaggerated. Boys are slightly better than girls at math and science, girls are better students, do better in reading than boys, and have better writing skills.

28. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 28 Gender Stereotypes, Similarities, and Differences Gender Similarities and Differences (continued) –Socioemotional Similarities and Differences Relationships –Rapport talk: The language of conversation and a way of establishing connections and negotiating relationships; more characteristic of females than of males. –Report talk: Talk that conveys information; more characteristic of males than of females.

29. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 29 Gender Stereotypes, Similarities, and Differences Relationships (continued) –Tannen believes that girls are more relationship- oriented than boys, but critics believe that the differences are overemphasized and depend on such contextual factors as: »Group size »Speaking with peers or adults »Familiarity »Age

30. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 30 Gender Stereotypes, Similarities, and Differences –Socioemotional Similarities and Differences (continued) Aggression –Boys are more physically aggressive than girls; girls are more likely to engage in verbal or relational aggression. Self-Regulation of Emotion –Males usually show less self-regulation than females, and this low self-control can translate into behavioral problems.

31. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 31 Gender Stereotypes, Similarities, and Differences Socioemotional Similarities and Differences (continued) Achievement –For some areas of achievement (e.g., major league baseball), gender differences are so large they do not overlap. –Females are more likely to be engaged with academic material, be attentive in class, put forth more academic effort, and participate more in class than boys.

32. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 32 Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 2 Describe gender stereotyping, similarities, and differences –Review How extensive is gender stereotyping? What are some gender similarities and differences in the areas of biological, cognitive, and socioemotional development?

33. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 33 Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 2 –Reflect How is your gender behavior and thinking similar or different from your mother’s and grandmothers’ if you are a female? How is your gender behavior and thinking similar or different from your father’s and grandfathers’ if you are a male?

34. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 34 Gender-Role Classification What Is Gender-Role Classification? –Instead of describing masculinity and femininity as a continuum in which more of one means less of the other, it is proposed that individuals can have both masculine and feminine traits. –Androgyny The presence of masculine and feminine characteristics in the same person. Gender experts argue that androgynous individuals are more flexible, competent, and mentally healthy than their masculine or feminine counterparts.

35. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 35 Gender Stereotypes, Similarities, and Differences The Bem Sex-Role Inventory: Are You Androgynous? Refer to Figure 13.6

36. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 36 Gender-Role Classification Androgyny and Education –Advocates believe that traditional sex-typing is harmful for all students and especially has prevented many girls from experiencing equal opportunity. –Detractors argue that androgynous educational programs are too value-laden and ignore the diversity of gender roles in our society.

37. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 37 Gender-Role Classification Masculinity in Childhood and Adolescence –There is a special concern about boys who adopt a strong masculine role in adolescence because this is associated with problem behaviors. In the Western male adolescent culture, male adolescents believe they will be thought of as more masculine if they engage in premarital sex, drink alcohol, take drugs, and participate in illegal delinquent activities.

38. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 38 Gender-Role Classification Gender-Role Transcendence –Gender-role transcendence, an alternative to androgyny, is the view that when an individual’s competence is at issue, it should be conceptualized on a personal basis rather than on the basis of masculinity, femininity, or androgyny.

39. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 39 Gender-Role Classification Gender in Context –Different gender roles might be more appropriate depending on the context or setting involved. –Although gender roles in the United States have become increasingly similar in recent decades, in many countries deviations from traditional gender-role orientations are severely disapproved of. –In many cultures, gender-specific behavior is pronounced and females have low-status positions with limited access to education; however, evidence of gender equality is beginning to appear around the world.

40. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 40 Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 3 Identify how gender roles can be classified –Review What is gender-role classification? What are the effects of teaching androgyny in schools? What are some risks of masculinity in childhood and adolescence? What is gender-role transcendence? How can gender be conceptualized in terms of context?

41. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 41 Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 3 –Reflect Several decades ago, the word dependency was used to describe the relational orientation of femininity. Dependency took on a negative connotation; for instance, it was suggested that females can’t take care of themselves whereas males can. Today, the term dependency is being replaced by relational abilities, which has more positive connotations (Caplan & Caplan, 1999).

42. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 42 Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 3 –Reflect (continued) Rather than being thought of as dependent, women are now more often described as skilled in forming and maintaining relationships. Make up a list of words that you associate with masculinity and femininity. Do these words have any negative connotations for males and females? For the words that do have negative connotations, think about replacements that have more positive connotations.

43. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 43 Summary Gender refers to the psychological and sociocultural dimensions of being male or female. In the social roles view, women have less power and status than men and control fewer resources. Both cognitive developmental and gender schema theories emphasize the role of cognition in gender development.

44. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 44 Summary Gender stereotypes are widespread around the world; they emphasize the male’s power and the female’s nurturance. Physical and biological differences between males and females are substantial.

45. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 45 Summary In the past, the well-adjusted male was supposed to show masculine traits, the well- adjusted female feminine traits. In the 1970s, alternatives to traditional gender roles were introduced and it was proposed that competent individuals could show both masculine and feminine traits.

46. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 46 Summary Androgyny education programs have been more successful with females than males and more successful with children than adolescents. A special concern is that boys raised in a traditional manner are socialized to conceal their emotions; problem behaviors often characterize highly masculine adolescents.

47. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 47 Summary One alternative to androgyny is gender-role transcendence, which states that there has been too much emphasis on gender and that a better strategy is to think about competence in terms of people rather than gender.

48. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 48 Summary In thinking about gender, it is important to keep in mind the context in which gender behavior is displayed. Traditional gender roles are still dominant in many countries around the world.