1. Copyright 2008 Allyn & Bacon1 Gender Identity and Gender Roles Chapter 6 This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or in part, of any images; any rental, lease, or lending of the program.

2. Copyright 2008 Allyn & Bacon 2 Gender Identity and Gender Roles Prenatal Sexual Differentiation Gender Identity Gender Roles and Stereotypes Sex Differences Gender Typing Psychological Androgyny

3. Copyright 2008 Allyn & Bacon 3 Gender Identity and Gender Roles Gender The psychological state of being female or male, and the roles assigned by society Different from anatomic sex, which is based on the physical differences between females and males Gender typing The process of learning to behave in line with what is expected of one’s gender

4. Copyright 2008 Allyn & Bacon 4 Prenatal Sexual Differentiation The process by which males and females develop distinct reproductive anatomy Sperm fertilizes ovum Zygote A fertilized ovum (egg cell)

5. Copyright 2008 Allyn & Bacon 5 Prenatal Sexual Differentiation Chromosomes Rodlike structures found in the nucleus of every living cell and carry the genetic code in the form of genes 23 chromosomes from male parent combine with 23 chromosomes from female parent to form 23 pairs The 23rd pair determines sex of offspring. Females contribute X; males contribute X or Y If 23rd pair is XX, normally develops as female If 23rd pair is XY, normally develops as male

6. Copyright 2008 Allyn & Bacon 6 Prenatal Sexual Differentiation Embryo The stage of prenatal development that begins with implantation of a fertilized ovum in the uterus and concludes with development of the major organ systems at about two months after fertilization After seven weeks of prenatal development, the genetic code (XX or XY) results in changes in the gonads, genital ducts, and external genitalia. Ovaries begin to develop at 11 or 12 weeks.

7. Copyright 2008 Allyn & Bacon 7 Prenatal Sexual Differentiation Genetic Factors in Sexual Differentiation Genetic influences do exist, e.g. SRY (sex- determining region Y gene). Leads to the formation of the testes The Role of Sex Hormones Androgens Male sex hormones Presence results in the development of male external reproductive organs’ Without androgens, all infants would develop externally as females

8. Copyright 2008 Allyn & Bacon 8 Prenatal Sexual Differentiation Testosterone: the male sex hormone that fosters the development of male sex characteristics and is connected with the sex drive Testosterone causes cells in hypothalamus to become insensitive to estrogen In female fetuses, the female sex hormones (estrogen and progesterone) do not play a role in fetal sexual differentiation.

9. Copyright 2008 Allyn & Bacon 9 Prenatal Sexual Differentiation Descent of the Testes and Ovaries Testes and ovaries develop from structures in the abdominal cavity. The ovaries complete their descent after the prenatal period. Inguinal canal: a fetal canal that connects the scrotum and the testes, allowing their descent. Cryptorchidism The condition defined by testes that fail to descend

10. Copyright 2008 Allyn & Bacon 10 Prenatal Sexual Differentiation Sex Chromosomal Abnormalities: Klinefelter syndrome: a condition caused by an extra X chromosome (XXY) in a male Fail to develop appropriate secondary sex characteristics May be mildly retarded Turner syndrome: a condition caused by only one X chromosome (XO) in a female At risk for medical complications Spatial and math difficulties Infertility

11. Copyright 2008 Allyn & Bacon 11 Gender Identity One’s awareness of being male or female Sex assignment (also called gender assignment) Labeling of a newborn as a male or a female By 18 months, most children know their anatomical sex By the age of 3, most children have a solid sense of their gender identity.

12. Copyright 2008 Allyn & Bacon 12 Gender Identity Nature and Nurture in Gender Identity Gender identity is typically consistent with one’s chromosomal sex. People usually are reared as males or females, in accordance with their sexual anatomy.

13. Copyright 2008 Allyn & Bacon 13 Gender Identity Hermaphrodite: a person who possesses both ovarian and testicular tissue Is extremely rare Intersexual: a person who possesses gonads of one sex but external genitalia that are ambiguous or typical of the other sex Also termed pseudohermaphrodite The experiences of intersexuals have helped uncover the relative importance of nature and nurture.

14. Copyright 2008 Allyn & Bacon 14 Gender Identity Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) The most common form of female intersexualism Genetic female has female internal sexual structures but masculinized external genitals Due to exposure to excess levels of androgens Girls with CAH exhibit more interest in masculine- typed behaviors Results may support a hormonal contribution to gender identity

15. Copyright 2008 Allyn & Bacon 15 Gender Identity Androgen-insensitivity syndrome Genetic male is prenatally insensitive to androgens such that his genitals are not normally masculinized Dominican Republic syndrome A genetic enzyme disorder prevents testosterone from masculinizing the external genitalia First documented in the Dominican Republic At puberty, testosterone levels become normal Most transition to the male gender role Supports the importance of biological factors

16. Copyright 2008 Allyn & Bacon 16 Gender Identity Researchers studying partial androgen insensitivity syndrome and complete androgen insensitivity syndrome in girls conclude that two X sex chromosomes and ovaries are not essential to the development of feminine-typed behaviors. Supports the importance of environmental factors Conclusion is that gender identity is affected by a complex interaction between biological and psychosocial factors.

17. Copyright 2008 Allyn & Bacon 17 Gender Identity Transsexualism Transsexuals People who strongly desire to be of the other sex and live as a person of the other sex Gender dysphoria A sense of incongruity between one’s anatomic sex and one’s gender identity Autogynephilic Are sexually stimulated by fantasies that their own bodies are female

18. Copyright 2008 Allyn & Bacon 18 Gender Identity Homosexual transsexuals Extremely feminine gay males who seek sex reassignment Sex reassignment surgery Irreversible and involves a lifetime of hormone treatments Largely cosmetic Phalloplasty: the surgical procedure of creating an artificial penis Outcomes of gender-reassignment surgery are more positive if social support is available.

19. Copyright 2008 Allyn & Bacon 19 Gender Roles and Stereotypes Stereotype A fixed, conventional idea about a group of people Often a distorted generalization Gender roles Complex clusters of expectations for how males and females should behave

20. Copyright 2008 Allyn & Bacon 20 Gender Roles and Stereotypes INSERT TABLE 6.1 HERE IF POSSIBLE

21. Copyright 2008 Allyn & Bacon 21 Gender Roles and Stereotypes Sexism The prejudgment that because of her or his sex, a person will possess certain negative traits Education can change traditional sexist attitudes. Psychologically damaging Can influence career choice

22. Copyright 2008 Allyn & Bacon 22 Gender Roles and Stereotypes Gender Roles and Sexual Behavior Men as initiators, women as gatekeepers Men make the choices regarding sexual positions and techniques Men as overaroused, women as underaroused Men report more interest in sex than women do.

23. Copyright 2008 Allyn & Bacon 23 Sex Differences Differences in Cognitive Abilities In most cases, the differences are small. They are group differences (variability is larger within than between the genders). Differences may largely reflect environmental influences and cultural expectations. Females tend to be better than males are at verbal tasks. Males tend to be better at visual/spatial tasks compared to females.

24. Copyright 2008 Allyn & Bacon 24 Sex Differences Differences in Personality Females are more extraverted, anxious, trusting, and nurturing Males are more assertive, tough- minded, and have higher self-esteem Differences tend to be small

25. Copyright 2008 Allyn & Bacon 25 Sex Differences Differences in Social Behavior Differences in communication styles Males dominate discussions. Females express their feelings more than males do. Differences in aggressiveness Males engage in more overt aggression compared to females. Differences in willingness to seek health care Women live an average of seven years longer than men do.

26. Copyright 2008 Allyn & Bacon 26 Gender Typing Gender typing The process by which children acquire behavior that is deemed appropriate to their sex

27. Copyright 2008 Allyn & Bacon 27 Gender Typing Biological Perspectives Evolutionary perspective Stress is on genetic influences passed down from ancestors Traditional roles have promoted survival in the past Prenatal brain organization May explain men’s overall superiority at visual/spatial tasks and women’s overall superiority at verbal tasks Prenatal sex hormones may create a greater or reduced tendency to act physically aggressive.

28. Copyright 2008 Allyn & Bacon 28 Gender Typing Psychological Perspectives Psychodynamic theory Gender typing occurs through identification with the same sex parent A resolution to the Oedipus complex (or Electra complex in girls) Social-learning theory Gender typing occurs through the processes of observational learning, reinforcement, and socialization Guiding people into socially acceptable behavior patterns by using information, rewards, and punishments

29. Copyright 2008 Allyn & Bacon 29 Gender Typing Psychological Perspectives Cognitive-developmental theory Gender typing occurs through cognitive development Schema Concept; way of interpreting experience or processing information Gender stability Concept that people retain their genders for a lifetime Gender constancy Concept that people’s genders do not change, even if they alter their dress or behavior

30. Copyright 2008 Allyn & Bacon 30 Gender Typing Psychological Perspectives Gender schema theory Gender schema Cluster of mental representations about male and female physical qualities, behaviors, and personality traits Once learned, children evaluate themselves in terms that are appropriate to their sex. Higher self-esteem is associated with self-concepts that are congruent with the prominent gender schema of one’s culture. A gender schema can lead to gender-appropriate behaviors and affects mental processes, e.g., memory. Cross-cultural perspectives Gender roles as a cultural adaptation

31. Copyright 2008 Allyn & Bacon 31 Psychological Androgyny Characterized by possession of both stereotypical masculine traits and stereotypical feminine traits May be more flexible, acting on the demands of the situation Associated with psychological well-being and higher self-esteem