1. Considering Argumentation ADAPTED FROM: Costa, V. and Shand, K. (January 2010) Analyzing and Evaluating Information with Intel’s Showing Evidence Tool. Presentation for the Teaching with Technology Faculty Showcase, California State University Fullerton.

2. Why Teach Students to Argue?

3. Research Findings: Importance of Teaching Argumentation Prepares students for real-world problems Arguments are constructed in all different disciplines and professions and are also an important part of everyday life. Helps students develop higher- order thinking skills Helps them learn how to support claims with appropriate evidence and reasoning (McNeill, Lizotte, Krajcik, and Marx, 2004) Increases students’ content knowledge Requires students to think deeply about the content and to construct their own understanding of the content as they construct their arguments (Driver, Newton, and Osborne, 2000) Encourages thoughtful student discussions Creates an environment where students question each other’s claims and identify appropriate evidence, warrants, and backing (Jimenez-Alexandre, Rodriquez and Duschl, 2000)

4. Research Findings: Negative Findings about Argumentation Students have difficulty constructing arguments. When asked to construct arguments without specific instruction in this area, students, grades 5-12 generally generate weak arguments (Means and Voss, 1996). Students need instructional support as they construct arguments. Even with instruction, students have difficulty providing certain components of arguments, such as describing reasoning for why evidence supports their claim (McNeill et al, 2004).

5. Format of an Argument

6. Toulmin’s Model There are three major and necessary parts of an argument.

7. 3 Necessary Parts to an Argument Claim Main point, thesis, controlling idea Claim may be directly stated First of a text, but sometimes at end for effect OR claim may be applied Found by asking “what is the author trying to prove?” You should buy our tooth-whitening product. Universities should reinstate affirmative action admission policies.

8. 3 Necessary Parts to an Argument Supports Reasons given in support of the claim Also known as evidence, proof, data, arguments, or grounds Support can be facts and figures, expert opinion, examples, explanations, and logical reasoning. Found by asking “what does the author say to persuade the reader of the claim? Studies show that teeth are 50% whiter after using the product for a specified time. Studies show that affirmative action provides increased access to education for all ethnic groups, with the largest increases for Hispanic Americans.

9. 3 Necessary Parts to an Argument Warrants Assumptions or presuppositions underlying the argument Generally accepted beliefs and values, common ways our culture or society views things Author and audience may share warrants; or warrants of each may be in conflict Provide the underlying reasons linking the claim and the support Found by asking “what’s causing the author to say the things she does?” or “where is the author coming from?” People want whiter teeth. Equality of access is a basic American value.

10. Toulmin’s Model There are three optional but helpful additional parts of an argument.

11. 3 Additional Parts to an Argument Qualifiers Because argument is about probability and possibility, not about certainty, don’t use superlatives like: all, every, absolutely, never, none, no one Qualify your claim with expressions like: many, many times, some, rarely, few, possibly Rebuttal Take into consideration other conflicting viewpoints and deal with them fairly. Answer questions and objections raised in the minds of the audience. Otherwise, your own argument will be weakened and subjet to attach and counter-argument Sometimes rebuttal will be directed to opposing claims. Other times rebuttal will be directed at alternative interpretations or evidence of new evidence Backing Sometimes warrant needs evidence to support it, to make it more believable.

12. EXAMPLE Qualifier: If a university does not have a diverse student body Claim:... It should use affirmative action admissions policies Support: Studies show that affirmative action provides increased access to education for all ethnic groups, with the largest increases for Hispanic Americans. Rebuttal: Affirmative action policies do not result in “reverse discrimination” because they are only part of a process that attempts to ensure fairness in college admissions. Warrant: Equality of access is a basic American value Backing: Equality before the law is a fundamental right of all Americans.

13. Five Types of Claims (and an example of each!)

14. Five Categories of Claims CLAIM OF FACT: GUN CONTROL There are serious restrictions on our Constitutional right to bear arms. This argument will cite facts, examples, and statistics relating to laws and policies that restrict the sale and use of firearms. Claims of FACT : Is it real? Is it a fact? Did it really happen? Is it true? Does it exist? Global warming is occurring. Women are just as effective as men in combat. Affirmative action undermines individual achievement. Immigrants are taking away jobs from Americans who need work.

15. Five Categories of Claims Claims of DEFINITION : What it is? What is it like? How should it be classified? How can it be defined? How do we interpret it? Does its meaning shift in particular contexts? Alcoholism is a disease, not a vice. We need to define the term family before we can talk abut family values. Date rape is a violent crime. The death penalty constitutes “cruel and unusual punishment.” CLAIM OF DEFINITION: GUN CONTROL Laws governing the sale of firearms such as assault weapon and handguns do not constitute an infringement on our right to bear arms. This argument will focus on the Bill of Rights and its clause about the right to bear arms. It will argue for a particular definition of "right to bear arms" that includes the writing of laws that relate to ownership of firearms.

16. Five Categories of Claims Claims of CAUSE : How did this happen? What caused it? What led up to this? What are the effects? What will this produce? The introduction of the computer into university writing classes has enhanced student writing ability. The popularity of the Internet has led to a rise in plagiarism amongst students. The economic boom of the 1990s was due in large part to the skillful leadership of the executive branch. CLAIM OF CAUSE: GUN CONTROL T ougher laws governing the sale of handguns would result in a decrease in the number of homicides each year. This argument would seek to establish a link between difficulty in obtaining a handgun and a drop in the homicide rate. It will use statistics, facts, and analogies from other places where similar things have been done.

17. Five Categories of Claims CLAIM OF VALUE: GUN CONTROL The right to bear arms is still an important civil right in the United States. This argument will appeal to people’s sense of the value of gun ownership. It will probably appeal to authorities, such as the Constitution, to history, and to long-held customs. Claims of VALUE : Is it good or bad? Beneficial or harmful? Moral or immoral? Who says so? What do these people value? What value system will b used to judge? Doctor-assisted suicide is immoral. Violent computer games are detrimental to children’s social development. The Simpsons is not a bad show for young people to watch. Dancing is good, clean fun.

18. Five Categories of Claims CLAIM OF POLICY: GUN CONTROL The sale of assault weapons in the United States should be banned. This argument will use a variety of motivational appeals and value proofs, analogies, facts and statistics cause and effect arguments, and appeals to authorities to provide that this is a favorable course of action. Claims of POLICY : What should I do? How are we to act? What policy should we take? What course of action should we take to solve this problem? We should spend less on the prison systems and more on early intervention programs. The State of Oklahoma should issue vouchers for parents to fund their children’s education. Every person in the United States should have access to federally-funded health insurance.

19. Now You Try It! BE PREPARED TO SHARE EACH OF THE FOLLOWING: With a partner – I’ll assign you a claim type. Compose a claim for each that relates to your discipline. Be sure to identify the evidence you’d expect to need to support this claim. On your own: Compose a claim for your own research. Identify the type of claim as well as the evidence you’d need to support this claim.

20. Determining Acceptable Evidence Different subject areas and audiences Literature course may require quotations from text as evidence Science course may accept experimental results/research from scientific journals History course may accept primary sources, certain academic Websites, and a list of approved books Project dealing with social issue may permit survey results, interviews, approved Websites, and certain books Audience is important to consider when determining the “best” evidence to use What is important to a teen may be different from that of a politician or doctor.

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22. Determining Acceptable Evidence Other Questions to Consider What is the lowest acceptable source for evidence? Where will you set the bar? Should students consider all evidence – even poor evidence – or will their be a minimum threshold for quality? What is the highest or most desirable source for evidence? Do you expect direct quotes or summaries of the evidence? How do you want the source cited? Is there a minimum number of supporting and/or opposing pieces of evidence?

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24. References Batey, A., Pllard, J., Shott, S., and Yost, J., (2005). Intel ® Teach to the Future Workshop on Teaching Thinking with Technology. Intel Corporation. Thinking Tools with Technology Toulmin's Analysis Wood, N., Perspectives on Argument, 2nd ed., pp. 161-72. Swadley, Charles. “Argumentation.”Argumentation