1. Lecture 31 Independent Demand and Ordering System (Revision) Books Introduction to Materials Management, Sixth Edition, J. R. Tony Arnold, P.E., CFPIM, CIRM, Fleming College, Emeritus, Stephen N. Chapman, Ph.D., CFPIM, North Carolina State University, Lloyd M. Clive, P.E., CFPIM, Fleming College Operations Management for Competitive Advantage, 11th Edition, by Chase, Jacobs, and Aquilano, 2005, N.Y.: McGraw-Hill/Irwin. Operations Management, 11/E, Jay Heizer, Texas Lutheran University, Barry Render, Graduate School of Business, Rollins College, Prentice Hall

2. Objectives What is Inventory Cost of Inventory Benefits of Inventory Multi period model Optimal quantity to order Safety stock Periodic review system Single period Inventory model

3. What is inventory? Inventory is the raw materials, component parts, work-in-process, or finished products that are held at a location in the supply chain.

4. Why do we care? At the macro level: Investment in inventory is currently over $1.25 Trillion (U.S. Department of Commerce). This figure accounts for almost 25% of GNP. Enormous potential for efficiency increase by controlling inventories Inventory is one of the biggest corporate assets ($).

5. –Sales growth: right inventory at the right place at the right time –Cost reduction: less money tied up in inventory, inventory management, obsolescence Higher profit Why do we care? At the firm level:

6. Why do we care? Each of Solectron’s big customers, which include Cisco, Ericsson, and Lucent was expecting explosive growth for wireless phones and networking gear….when the bottom finally fell out, it was too late for Solectron to halt orders from all of its 4,000 suppliers. Now, Solectron has $4.7 billion in inventory. (BW, March 19, 2001) “When Palm formally reported its quarterly numbers in June, the damage was gruesome. Its loss totaled $392 million, a big chunk of which was attributable to writing down excess inventory - piles of unsold devices.” (The Industry Standard, June 16, 2001) “Liz Claiborne said its unexpected earnings decline is the consequence of higher than anticipated excess inventories”. (WSJ, August 1993)

7. How do you manage your inventory? How much do you buy? When? Soda Milk Toilet paper Gas Cereal Cash

8. What Do you Consider? Cost of not having it. Cost of going to the grocery or gas station (time, money), cost of drawing money. Cost of holding and storing, lost interest. Price discounts. How much you consume. Some safety against uncertainty.

9. Costs of Inventory Physical holding costs: –out of pocket expenses for storing inventory (insurance, security, warehouse rental, cooling) –All costs that may be entailed before you sell it (obsolescence, spoilage, rework...) Opportunity cost of inventory: foregone return on the funds invested. Operational costs: –Delay in detection of quality problems. –Delay the introduction of new products. –Increase throughput times.

10. Hedge against uncertain demand Hedge against uncertain supply Economize on ordering costs Smoothing Benefits of Inventory To summarize, we build and keep inventory in order to match supply and demand in the most cost effective way.

11. Modeling Inventory in a Supply Chain… Warehouse Retail Supplier

12. Home Depot “Our inventory consists of up to 35,000 different kinds of building materials, home improvement supplies, and lawn and garden products.” “We currently offer thousands of products in our online store.” “We offer approximately 250,000 more products through our special order services.”

13. Different types of inventory models 1.Multi-period model Repeat business, multiple orders 2.Single period models Single selling season, single order

14. Multiperiod model Key questions: – How often to review? – When to place an order? – How much to order? – How much stock to keep? orders Supply On-hand inventory Ordering costs Holding costs

15. Multiperiod model – The Economic Order Quantity Demand is known and deterministic: D units/year We have a known ordering cost, S, and immediate replenishment Annual holding cost of average inventory is H per unit Purchasing cost C per unit Supplier Demand Retailer

16. What is the optimal quantity to order? Total Cost = Purchasing Cost + Ordering Cost + Inventory Cost Purchasing Cost = (total units) x (cost per unit) Ordering Cost = (number of orders) x (cost per order) Inventory Cost = (average inventory) x (holding cost)

17. Finding the optimal quantity to order… Let’s say we decide to order in batches of Q… Number of periods will be D Q Time Total Time Period over which demand for Q has occurred Q Inventory position The average inventory for each period is… Q 2

18. Finding the optimal quantity to order… Purchasing cost = D x C Inventory cost = Ordering cost = D Q x S Q 2 x H

19. So what is the total cost? TC = D C ++ In order now to find the optimal quantity we need to optimize the total cost with respect to the decision variable (the variable we control) Which one is the decision variable? D Q S Q 2 H

20. What is the main insight from EOQ? There is a tradeoff between holding costs and ordering costs Order Quantity (Q*) Cost Total cost Holding costs Ordering costs

21. Economic Order Quantity - EOQ Q * = 2SD H Example: Assume a car dealer that faces demand for 5,000 cars per year, and that it costs $15,000 to have the cars shipped to the dealership. Holding cost is estimated at $500 per car per year. How many times should the dealer order, and what should be the order size?

22. Receive order Time Inventory OrderQuantityQ Placeorder Lead Time If delivery is not instantaneous, but there is a lead time L: When to order? How much to order?

23. ROP = LxD Receive order Time Inventory OrderQuantityQ Placeorder Lead Time ReorderPoint(ROP) If demand is known exactly, place an order when inventory equals demand during lead time. D: demand per period L: Lead time in periods Q: When shall we order? A: When inventory = ROP Q: How much shall we order? A: Q = EOQ

24. Example (continued)… What if the lead time to receive cars is 10 days? (when should you place your order?) 10 365 D =R = 10 365 5000 = 137 So, when the number of cars on the lot reaches 137, order 548 more cars. Since D is given in years, first convert: 10 days = 10/365yrs

25. Receive order Placeorder Lead Time ROP = ???

27. Stockout Point Unfilled demand Receive order Time Inventory Order Quantity Place order Lead Time If Actual Demand > Expected, we Stock Out

29. To reduce stockouts we add safety stock Receive order Time Place order Lead Time Expected Lead-time Demand Inventory Level ROP = Safety Stock + Expected LT Demand Order Quantity Q = EOQ Expected LT Demand Safety Stock

30. Service level Safety Stock Probability of stock-out Decide what Service Level you want to provide (Service level = probability of NOT stocking out)

31. Service level Safety Stock Probability of stock-out Safety stock = (safety factor z)(std deviation in LT demand) Read z from Normal table for a given service level

32. Caution: Std deviation in LT demand Variance over multiple periods = the sum of the variances of each period (assuming independence) Standard deviation over multiple periods is the square root of the sum of the variances, not the sum of the standard deviations!!!

33. Average Inventory = (Order Qty)/2 + Safety Stock Receive order Time Place order Lead Time Inventory Level Order Quantity Safety Stock (SS) EOQ/2 Average Inventory

34. How to find ROP & Q 1.Order quantity Q = 2.To find ROP, determine the service level (i.e., the probability of NOT stocking out.) u Find the safety factor from a z-table or from the graph. u Find std deviation in LT demand: square root law. u Safety stock is given by: SS = (safety factor)(std dev in LT demand) u Reorder point is: ROP = Expected LT demand + SS 3.Average Inventory is: SS + EOQ/2

35. Example (continued)… Back to the car lot… recall that the lead time is 10 days and the expected yearly demand is 5000. You estimate the standard deviation of daily demand demand to be  d = 6. When should you re-order if you want to be 95% sure you don’t run out of cars? Since the expected yearly demand is 5000, the expected demand over the lead time is 5000(10/365) = 137. The z- value corresponding to a service level of 0.95 is 1.65. So Order 548 cars when the inventory level drops to 168.

36. Why Companies Don’t Always Use Optimal Order Quantity It is not unusual for companies to order less or more than the EOQ for several reasons: They may not have a known uniform demand; Some suppliers have minimum order quantity that are beyond the demand.

37. Justifying Smaller Order Quantities JIT or “Lean Systems” would recommend reducing order quantities to the lowest practical levels Benefits from reducing Q’s: –Improved customer responsiveness (inventory = Lead time) –Reduced Cycle Inventory –Reduced raw materials and purchased components Justifying smaller EOQ’s: Reduce Q’s by reducing setup time (S). “Setup reduction” is a well documented, structured approach to reducing S

38. Determining Safety Stock and Service Levels If demand or lead time is uncertain, safety stock can be added to improve order-cycle service levels –R = dL +SS –Where SS = zσ dL, and Z is the number of standard deviations and σ dL is standard deviation of the demand during lead time Order-cycle service level –The probability that demand during lead time will not exceed on-hand inventory –A 95% service level (stockout risk of 5%) has a Z=1.645

39. Periodic Review Systems Orders are placed at specified, fixed-time intervals (e.g. every Friday), for a order size (Q) to bring on-hand inventory (OH) up to the target inventory (TI), similar to the min-max system. Advantages are: –No need for a system to continuously monitor item –Items ordered from the same supplier can be reviewed on the same day saving purchase order costs Disadvantages: –Replenishment quantities (Q) vary –Order quantities may not quality for quantity discounts –On the average, inventory levels will be higher than Q systems-more stockroom space needed

40. Periodic Review Systems: Calculations for TI Targeted Inventory level: TI = d(RP + L) + SS d = average period demand RP = review period (days, wks) L = lead time (days, wks) SS = zσ RP+L Replenishment Quantity (Q)=TI-OH

41. P System: an auto parts store calculated the EOQ for Drive Belts at 236 units and wants to compare the Total Inventory Costs for a Q vs. a P Review System. Annual demand (D) is 2704, avg. weekly demand is 52, weekly σ is 1.77 belts, and lead time is 3 weeks. The annual TC for the Q system is $229; H=$97, S=$10. Review Period Target Inventory for 95% Service Level Average On-Hand OH avg = TI-dL=424-(52belts)(3wks) = 268 belts Annual Total Cost (P System)

42. Single Period Inventory Model The SPI model is designed for products that share the following characteristics: –Sold at their regular price only during a single-time period –Demand is highly variable but follows a known probability distribution –Salvage value is less than its original cost so money is lost when these products are sold for their salvage value Objective is to balance the gross profit of the sale of a unit with the cost incurred when a unit is sold after its primary selling period

43. SPI Model Example: T-shirts are purchase in multiples of 10 for a charity event for $8 each. When sold during the event the selling price is $20. After the event their salvage value is just $2. From past events the organizers know the probability of selling different quantities of t-shirts within a range from 80 to 120 Payoff Table Prob. Of Occurrence. 20.25.30.15.10 Customer Demand 80 90 100 110 120 # of Shirts OrderedProfit 80$960 $960 $960 $960 $960 $960 90 $900$1080$1080$1080$1080$1040 Buy 100 $840$1020$1200$1200$1200$1083 110$780$ 960$1140 $1320$1320$1068 120$720$ 900$1080 $1260$1440$1026 Sample calculations: Payoff (Buy 110)= sell 100($20-$8) –((110-100) x ($8-$2))= $1140 Expected Profit (Buy 100)= ($840 X.20)+($1020 x.25)+($1200 x.30) + ($1200 x.15)+($1200 x.10) = $1083

44. End of Lecture 31