1. 1 Thinking Critically with Psychological Science Unit II- Modules 4-8

2. 2 Thinking Critically with Psychological Science The Need for Psychological Science  The limits of Intuition and Common Sense  The Scientific Attitude  The Scientific Method

3. 3 Thinking Critically … Description  The Case Study  The Survey  Naturalistic Observation

4. 4 Thinking Critically … Correlation  Correlation and Causation  Illusory Correlation  Perceiving Order in Random Events

5. 5 Thinking Critically … Experimentation  Exploring Cause and Effect  Evaluating Therapies  Independent and Dependent Variables

6. 6 Thinking Critically … Statistical Reasoning  Describing Data  Making Inferences FAQs About Psychology

7. 7 Impression of Psychology With hopes of satisfying curiosity, many people listen to talk-radio counselors and psychics to learn about others and themselves. Dr. Crane (radio-shrink) http://www.nbc.com http://www.photovault.com Psychic (Ball gazing)

8. 8 The Need for Psychological Science Intuition & Common Sense Many people believe that intuition and common sense are enough to bring forth answers regarding human nature. Intuition and common sense may aid queries, but they are not free of error.

9. 9 Limits of Intuition Personal interviewers may rely too much on their “gut feelings” when meeting with job applicants. Taxi/ Getty Images

10. 10 Hindsight Bias is the “I-knew-it-all-along” phenomenon. After learning the outcome of an event, many people believe they could have predicted that very outcome. We only knew the dot.com stocks would plummet after they actually did plummet. Hindsight Bias

11. 11 Overconfidence Sometimes we think we know more than we actually know. Anagram BARGEGRABE ENTRYETYRN WATERWREAT How long do you think it would take to unscramble these anagrams? People said it would take about 10 seconds, yet on average they took about 3 minutes (Goranson, 1978).

12. Perceiving Order in Random Events Comes from our need to make sense out of the world –Coin flip –Poker hand

13. 13 Psychological Science 1.How can we differentiate between uniformed opinions and examined conclusions? 2.The science of psychology helps make these examined conclusions, which leads to our understanding of how people feel, think, and act as they do!

14. 14 The Scientific Attitude The scientific attitude is composed of curiosity (passion for exploration), skepticism (doubting and questioning) and humility (ability to accept responsibility when wrong).

15. 15 Critical Thinking Critical thinking does not accept arguments and conclusions blindly. It examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence and assesses conclusions. The Amazing Randi Courtesy of the James Randi Education Foundation

16. 16 Scientific Method Psychologists, like all scientists, use the scientific method to construct theories that organize, summarize and simplify observations.

17. 17 A Theory is an explanation that integrates principles and organizes and predicts behavior or events. For example, low self-esteem contributes to depression. Theory

18. 18  A Hypothesis is a testable prediction, often prompted by a theory, to enable us to accept, reject or revise the theory.  People with low self-esteem are apt to feel more depressed. Hypothesis

19. The Scientific Method Theory –“mere hunch” Hypothesis –Can be confirmed or refuted Operational Definition A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study Replication (repeat) Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants to see whether the basic findings extends to others

20. 20  Research would require us to administer tests of self-esteem and depression.  Individuals who score low on a self-esteem test and high on a depression test would confirm our hypothesis. Research Observations

21. 21 Research Process

22. 22 Experimentation Like other sciences, experimentation is the backbone of psychology research. Experiments isolate causes and their effects. Exploring Cause and Effect

23. 23  Many factors influence our behavior.  Experiments (1) manipulate factors that interest us, while other factors are kept under (2) control.  Effects generated by manipulated factors isolate cause and effect relationships. Exploring Cause & Effect

24. 24 The Hawthorne Effect But even the control group may experience changes. Just the fact that you know you are in an experiment can cause change Whether the lights were brighter or dimmer, production went up in the Hawthorne electric plant.

25. 25  An Independent Variable is a factor manipulated by the experimenter. The effect of the independent variable is the focus of the study. –Ex. If there is a drug in an experiment, the drug is almost always the independent variable.  For example, when examining the effects of breast feeding upon intelligence, breast feeding is the independent variable. Independent Variable

26. 26  A Dependent Variable is a factor that may change in response to an independent variable. In psychology, it is usually a behavior or a mental process. The dependent variable would be the effect of the drug.  For example, in our study on the effect of breast feeding upon intelligence, intelligence is the dependent variable. Dependent Variable

27. 27 Confounding Variables AKA extraneous variables They are other things that can affect the outcome of the experiment. If I wanted to prove that smoking (A) causes heart issues (B), what are some confounding variables? A confounding variable is anything that could cause change in B, that is not A. Ex. Lifestyle (overeating), family history may also effect the heart. Other confounding variables: placebo effect, holidays, time of day…

28. 28 Experimentation A summary of steps during experimentation.

29. 29 Description  Case Study  A technique in which one person is studied in depth to reveal underlying behavioral principles. Is language uniquely human? Susan Kuklin/ Photo Researchers Different ways we observe and describe people….

30. 30 Case Study  A clinical study is a form of case study in which the therapist investigates the problems associated with a client. http://behavioralhealth.typepad.com Clinical Study

31. 31 Survey  A technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes, opinions or behaviors of people usually done by questioning a representative, random sample of people. Most common type of study in psychology Measures correlation Cheap and fast Need a good random sample

32. 32 Survey  Wording can change the results of a survey.  Q: Should cigarette ads and pornography be allowed on television? (not allowed vs. forbid) Wording Effect

33. 33 Survey  A tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors. False Consensus Effect

34. 34 Survey Random Sampling If each member of a population has an equal chance of inclusion into a sample, it is called a random sample (unbiased). If the survey sample is biased, its results are not valid. The fastest way to know about the marble color ratio is to blindly transfer a few into a smaller jar and count them.

35. 35 Naturalistic Observation Watch subjects in their natural environment. Do not manipulate the environment.  Ex. Observing and recording the behavior of animals in the wild  Ex. Recording self-seating patterns in a multiracial school lunch room constitute naturalistic observation. Courtesy of Gilda Morelli

36. 36 Descriptive Methods Case studies, surveys, and naturalistic observation describe behaviors. Summary

37. 37 Research Method: Correlation  Expresses a relationship between 2 variables.  When one trait or behavior accompanies another, we say the two correlate.  ex. Smoking and lung cancer  Correlation does not necessarily mean causation Correlations helps to predict Correlation coefficient Indicates direction of relationship (positive or negative) Indicates strength of relationship (0.00 to 1.00) r = 0.37 + Correlation Coefficient is a statistical measure of the relationship between two variables.

38. 38 Correlation Coefficient A number that measures the strength of a relationship. Range is from -1 to +1 The relationship gets weaker the closer you get to zero. Which is a stronger correlation? -.13 or +.38 -.72 or +.59 -.91 or +.04 *** NOTE*** You will NOT have to know how to calculate the correlational coefficient! Get this in your Stats class!

39. 39 Types of Correlation Positive Correlation The variables go in the SAME direction. Negative Correlation The variables go in opposite directions. Studying and grades hopefully has a positive correlation. Drug use and grades probably has a negative correlation.

40. 40 Perfect positive correlation (+1.00)  Scatterplot is a graph comprised of points that are generated by values of two variables.  The slope of the points depicts the direction, while the amount of scatter depicts the strength of the relationship. Scatterplots

41. 41 No relationship (0.00)-No correlation Perfect negative correlation (-1.00)  The Scatterplot on the left shows a negative correlation, while the one on the right shows no relationship between the two variables. Scatterplots

42. 42 Data Data showing height and temperament in people.

43. 43 Scatterplot  The Scatterplot below shows the relationship between height and temperament in people. There is a moderate positive correlation of +0.63.

44. 44 or Correlation and Causation

45. Correlation Illusory Correlations Illusory Correlation –Perceived non-existent correlation –A random coincidence

46. 46 Experimenter Bias Another confounding variable Not a conscious act Double-blind procedure –Neither the participants nor the research assistants collecting the data will know which group is receiving the treatment.

47. 47  In evaluating drug therapies, patients and experimenter’s assistants should remain unaware of which patients had the real treatment and which patients had the placebo treatment. Evaluating Therapies Double-blind Procedure

48. 48  Assigning participants to experimental (Breast- fed) and control (formula-fed) conditions by random assignment minimizes pre-existing differences between the two groups. Evaluating Therapies Random Assignment

49. 49 Comparison Below is a comparison of different research methods.

50. 50 Statistical Reasoning Statistics are tools that help us see and interpret what the unaided eye might miss.

51. 51 Describing Data  A meaningful description of data is important in research.  They are numbers that describe the main characteristics of the data.  Misrepresentation may lead to incorrect conclusions.

52. 52 Measures of Central Tendency  A single score that represents a whole set of numbers.  Mode: The most frequently occurring score in a distribution.  Mean: The arithmetic average of scores in a distribution obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores that were added together.  Median: The middle score in a rank- ordered distribution.  Watch out for extreme scores and outliers!

53. 53 Measures of Central Tendency A Skewed Distribution

54. 54 Measures of Variation Range: The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution. Standard Deviation: A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean.

55. 55 Standard Deviation

56. 56 Standard Deviation Less variability of scores is better than greater variability Therefore, if a group of scores has a smaller standard deviation, then you can draw more stable conclusions from the data set.

57. 57 Normal Curve Most cases fall near the mean and fewer cases fall near either extreme. Roughly 68% of scores fall within one SD on either side of the mean About 95% of scores fall within two SD

58. Descriptive Statistics Measures of Variability Normal Curve

59. Inferential Statistics When Is an Observed Difference Reliable? Inferential statistics Representative samples are better than biased samples Less-variable observations are more reliable than those that are more variable More cases are better than fewer

60. Inferential Statistics When Is a Difference Significant? Statistical significance –The averages are reliable –The differences between averages is relatively large –Does imply the importance of the results

61. Psychology Applied Can laboratory experiments illuminate everyday life? –The principles, not the research findings, help explain behavior Does behavior depend on one’s culture and gender? –Culture –Gender

62. 62 APA Ethical Guidelines for Research IRB- Internal Review Board –A committee at each institution where research is conducted to review every experiment for ethics and methodology –Reviews and approves all research Both for humans and animals.

63. 63 Animal Research Clear purpose Treated in a humane way Acquire animals legally Least amount of suffering possible.

64. 64 Human Research No Coercion- must be voluntary Informed consent –Participants are told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate Anonymity –Keep information about participants confidential No significant risk –Protect from harm and discomfort Must debrief –Explain the research afterward; including its purpose and any deceptions