1. Molecular Genetics Chapter 12 http://photo-dict.faqs.org/phrase/644/DNA.html

2. The Central Dogma of Biology http://www.uta.edu/biology/henry/classnotes/2457/Central%20Dogma.jpg

3. DNA: The Genetic Material Chapter 12.1

4. DNA and RNA http://www.dnatube.com/video/1017/Co mpare-DNA-and-RNA-in-structural- basishttp://www.dnatube.com/video/1017/Co mpare-DNA-and-RNA-in-structural- basis

5. Discovery of Genetic Material Frederick Griffith (1928) He studied two strains of the bacteria Streptococcus pneumoniae and found that one strain could be transformed or changed into the other. One strain had a sugar coat (S strain) and one did not (R strain).

6. Oswald Avery (1944) Avery and his colleagues identified the molecule that transformed the R strain to the S strain of bacteria. He isolated different macromolecules from the bacteria such as DNA, protein, and lipids. He concluded that DNA was released when the S cells died and this transformed the cells. Discovery of Genetic Material

7. Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase (1952) Experiments confirmed that DNA is the transforming factor. Radioactive labeling was used to trace the fate of the DNA and protein. Tracking the DNA provided evidence that DNA was the genetic material that could be passed from generation to generation, not protein. Discovery of Genetic Material

8. DNA Structure P.A. Levene (1920’s) Determined the basic structure of nucleotides that make up DNA. Nucleotides are the subunits of nucleic acids and consist of a five- carbon sugar, a phosphate, and a nitrogenous base.

9. DNA Structure DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) Sugar: deoxyribose Phosphate Nitrogen Bases: A (adenine), T (thymine), C (cytosine), and G (guanine)

10. RNA Structure RNA (ribonucleic acid) Sugar: ribose Phosphate Nitrogen Base: A (adenine), C (cytosine), G (guanine), U (uracil)

11. DNA Structure http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/discovery-of-dna-structure-and-function-watson-397

12. DNA Structure Erwin Chargaff Analyzed the amount of adenine, guanine, thymine, and cytosine in the DNA. Found that the amount of G equals the amount of C and the amount of T equals the amount of A. Chargaff’s Rule: C=G and T=A

13. DNA Structure http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/discovery-of-dna-structure-and-function-watson-397

14. DNA Structure Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin Franklin took the famous Photo 51 using a technique called x-ray diffraction. This photo showed that DNA was a double helix or twisted ladder formed from two strands of nucleotides twisted around each other.

15. DNA Structure Photo 51 http://tsfranklin.blogspot.comhttp://tsfranklin.blogspot.com/

16. DNA Structure Watson and Crick Using Chargaff’s and Franklin’s data, Watson and Crick measured the width of the helix and the spacing of the bases. Built a model of DNA using this information.

17. DNA Structure http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/discovery-of-dna-structure-and-function-watson-397

18. DNA Structure Double Helix (twisted ladder) Alternating deoxyribose (sugar) and phosphate (rails of ladder) Pairs of bases: C-G and T-A (rungs of ladder) Top rail (left side) DNA is read from 5’ to 3’, bottom strand runs from 3’ to 5’. This orientation is called antiparallel.

19. DNA Structure Complimentary Base Pairing Describes precise pairing of G-C and T-A (purines with pyrimidines) Characteristic of DNA replication where the parent strand determines the sequence of a new strand.

20. DNA Structure

21. DNA’s Function DNA is considered the “code of life” because it contains the code for each protein and organism needs to survive. The type of protein is determined by the order of nitrogenous bases found in DNA. Cells must have a “blueprint” that reveals the correct order of amino acids for each protein an organism needs to survive. A gene is a segment of DNA that codes for a particular protein.

22. DNA’s Function Each cell in an organism contains a complete set of chromosomes. Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes. One pair of chromosomes determines the sex (male or female) of an organism. These are known as sex chromosomes. All other chromosomes are known as autosomal chromosomes or autosomes.

23. DNA’s Function Cells contain one pair of each type of chromosome, except sex chromosomes. Each pair consists of two chromosomes that have genes for the same proteins. One chromosome in each pair was inherited from the male parent and the other from the female parent. This is how traits are passed to offspring.

24. Each chromosome consists of thousands of genes. This is because there are so many unique proteins that each organism needs to produce in order to live and survive. Organisms that are closely related may have genes that code for the same proteins that make the organisms similar. Each individual organism has unique characteristics and those unique characteristics arise because of the differences in the proteins that the organism produces. Organisms that are not closely related share fewer genes than organisms that are more closely related.

25. DNA, Genes, and Chromosomes DNA is organized into individual chromosomes. A gene is a segment of DNA that codes for a protein or RNA molecule.

27. Replication of DNA Chapter 12.2

28. https://wikispaces.psu.edu/pages/viewpage.action?pageId=40049820

29. DNA’s Function DNA can function as the code of life for protein synthesis or the process of DNA replication, which ensures that every new cell has identical DNA.

30. Replication DNA replication occurs during interphase of mitosis and meiosis. DNA replication is said to be semiconservative because parental strands of DNA separate and serve as templates to produce DNA molecules that have one parent strand and one new strand. DNA replication occurs in three stages: unwinding, base pairing, and joining.

31. Semiconservative Replication https://wikispaces.psu.edu/pages/viewpage.action?pageId=40049820

32. Replication DNA replication is carried out by a series of enzymes. 1) DNA helicase 2) RNA primase 3) DNA polymerase

33. Replication: Unwinding DNA helicase unwinds and unzips the double helix. This unwinding/unzipping breaks the hydrogen bonds between the bases (A, T, C, G). This leaves single strands of DNA. RNA primase adds short segments of RNA, called an RNA primer, to each DNA strand.

34. Replication: Base Pairing DNA polymerase catalyzes the addition of correct nucleotides to the new DNA strand. Nucleotides are added to the 3’ end of the new strand. ***A binds to T and C binds to G*** This allows identical copies of the original double-stranded DNA to be produced.

35. Replication: Base Pairing One strand of the unzipped DNA is called the leading strand and one strand is called the lagging strand. The leading strand is elongated as the DNA unwinds and is built continuously by the addition of nucleotides to the 3’ end. The lagging strand is synthesized discontinuously and elongates away from the replication fork because it is in the opposite direction (5’ to 3’).

36. DNA Replication: Joining When DNA polymerase comes to an RNA primer on the DNA, it will remove the primer and add nucleotides. When the RNA primer has been replaced, DNA ligase will link the two sections.

37. http://www.personal.psu.edu/staff/d/r/drs18/bisciImages/index.html

38. Eukaryotes vs Prokaryotes Eukaryotic DNA unwinds in multiple areas as DNA is replicated. Prokaryotic DNA is circular and therefore the DNA strand is opened at one origin of replication.

39. Eukaryotes vs Prokaryotes http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/D/DNAReplication.html

40. DNA, RNA, and Protein Chapter 12.3

41. The Central Dogma of Biology http://www.uta.edu/biology/henry/classnotes/2457/Central%20Dogma.jpg

42. RNA (ribonucleic acid) Sugar: ribose Phosphate Nitrogen Base: A (adenine), C (cytosine), G (guanine), U (uracil) Single Stranded http://www.biologycorner.com/bio1/DNA.html

43. RNA Three major types of RNA: 1) Messenger RNA (mRNA) 2) Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) 3) Transfer RNA (tRNA)

44. RNA NamemRNArRNAtRNA Function Carries genetic info from DNA (nucleus) to direct protein synthesis (cytoplasm). Associates with protein to form the ribosome. Transports amino acids to the ribosome. Example http://gabrielarogers.blogspot.com/2011/04/adenine-purine-nitrogen-containing-base.html http://dna-rna.net/2011/08/26/ribosomal-rna/

45. Protein Synthesis http://www.biologycorner.com/bio1/DNA.html

46. Transcription The synthesis of mRNA from DNA. The DNA code is transferred to mRNA in the nucleus. The mRNA takes this code into the cytoplasm for protein synthesis. http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0072507470/student_view0/chapter3/animation__mrna_synthesis__transcription___quiz_1_.html

47. Transcription 1) The DNA is unzipped in the nucleus and RNA polymerase binds to a specific section of the DNA. 2) mRNA will be synthesized along the DNA strands in the 3’ to 5’ direction. 3) The DNA that is producing the mRNA is called the template strand and mRNA is synthesized as a complement to the DNA nucleotides.

48. Transcription The nucleotides are added to the 3’ end of the mRNA molecule. Uracil (U) will be incorporated in the place of Thymine (T). The mRNA is eventually released and moves out of the nucleus through nuclear pores to the cytoplasm.

49. Transcription http://www.phschool.com/science/biology_place/biocoach/transcription/complete.html

50. Translation The process of interpreting the genetic message and building the specified protein. After mRNA is synthesized it moves to the ribosome (contains proteins and rRNA). The function of ribosomes is to assemble proteins according to the code mRNA brings. http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0072507470/student_view0/chapter3/animation__protein_synthesis__quiz_3_.html

51. Translation Each three-base nucleotide sequence on the mRNA is called a codon. Each codon will specify a particular amino acid that will be placed on the chain to build the protein molecule. The sequence of mRNA nucleotides will determine the order of amino acids in the chain which will distinguish one protein from another. Ex) DNA sequence: GAC, RNA sequence: CUG, Amino Acid: Leucine

52. Translation tRNA assembles amino acids in the correct sequence by transferring amino acids to the ribosomes as needed. There are 20 common amino acids used to construct proteins. Anticodon: 3 complimentary nucleotides to the mRNA codon, found at one end of the tRNA.

53. Translation 1) tRNA with its attached amino acid will pair to the codon of mRNA. 2) A second tRNA will pair with the next codon in mRNA. 3) The amino acid attached to the first tRNA will break away and attach to the amino acid of the second tRNA.

54. Translation 4) The ribosome will form a peptide bond between the amino acids. 5) The empty tRNA will move off and pick up another amino acid from the cytoplasm. 6) The sequence is repeated until the ribosome reaches a stop codon on the mRNA (this will signal the end of protein synthesis).

55. Translation http://www.biology.iupui.edu/biocourses/N100/2k3ch13dogma.html

56. The Genetic Code http://www.phschool.com/science/biology_place/biocoach/translation/gencode.html

57. Protein Synthesis http://www-class.unl.edu/biochem/gp2/m_biology/animation/gene/gene_a1.html

58. Gene Regulation and Mutation Chapter 12.4

59. Prokaryotic Gene Regulation Gene Regulation: the ability of an organism to control which genes are transcribed in response to the environment. Operon: a section of DNA that contains the genes for the protein needed for a specific metabolic pathway. Ex) lac operon

60. Eukaryotic Gene Regulation Transcription Factors: ensure the gene is used at the right time and that proteins are made in the correct amounts. 1) Forms complexes that guide and stabilize the binding of RNA polymerase to the promoter. 2) Regulatory proteins that help control the rate of transcription.

61. Mutations Mutation: the alteration of an organism’s DNA, a permanent change. Most mutations are repaired by enzymes but when they are not, mutations are passed on to subsequent daughter cells. Mutations can have either adverse or beneficial effects on the cell, organism, or future generations.

62. Somatic Mutations If the cell containing the mutation is a body cell (somatic cell), it will become part of the genetic sequence in that cell and future daughter cells. These types of mutations are NOT passed on to the next generation. These types of mutations often contribute to the aging process or the development of many forms of cancer.

63. Gamete Mutations When a mutation occurs in sex cells (gamete cells), the mutations ARE passed on to the organism’s offspring and will be present in every cell of the offspring. These mutations can result in a genetic disorder or other abnormalities. Ex) Sickle-cell, Albinism, Cystic Fibrosis

64. Beneficial Mutations Changes that may be useful to an organism in a different or changing environment. Result in phenotypes favored by natural selection which will generally increase a population.

65. Type of Mutations Point Mutations: involve a chemical change in just one base pair. Substitution: one base is exchanged for another. Most are mis-sense mutations where the DNA code is altered so that it codes for the wrong amino acid. Non-sense mutations cause translation to terminate early which leads to dysfunctional proteins.

66. Types of Mutations Frameshift Mutations: change the “frame” (change the multiples of 3 codons) of the amino acid sequence. Insertions: the addition of a nucleotide to the DNA sequence. Deletions: the loss of a nucleotide in the DNA sequence.

67. http://staff.jccc.net/pdecell/evolution/mutations/mutation.html

68. Types of Mutations