1. Chapter 2 Theories of Human Development

2. Chapter 2: Theories of Human Development
Theory: Ideas proposed to describe/explain certain phenomena
Organizes facts/observations
Guides collection of new data
Should be internally consistent
Falsifiable: hypothesis can be tested
Supported by data

4. Freud: Psychoanalytic Theory
Instincts and unconscious motivation
Id, Ego, and Superego formed from psychic energy (Libido)
Id: Instinctual nature of humans
Ego: rational and objective
Superego: internalized moral standards
A dynamic personality system
Regular conflicts between the three parts

5. Freud’s Psychosexual Development
Child moves through 5 stages
Stages result from conflict between Id & Superego
Conflict creates anxiety
Ego defends against anxiety with defense mechanisms
Early experiences have long-term effects on personality

6. Erik Erikson
Most influential neo-Freudian
Some differences with Freud
Less emphasis on sexual urges
More emphasis on rational ego
More positive and adaptive view of human nature
Believed development continues through adulthood

9. Strengths and Weaknesses of Freud’s Theory
Awareness of unconscious motivation
Emphasized important early experience
Neo-Freudians have been influential
Weaknesses
Ambiguous, inconsistent, not testable
Not supported by research

10. Strengths and Weaknesses of Erikson
Emphasis on rational and adaptive nature
Interaction of biological & social influences
Focus on identity crisis of adolescence still most relevant
Weaknesses
Sometimes vague and difficult to test
Does not explain how development comes about

11. Learning Theories: Classical Conditioning
Behaviorism: Conclusions should be based on observable behavior
Tabula Rasa: Environmental view
Association learning
UCS: built-in, unlearned stimulus
UCR: automatic, unlearned response
CS: causes learned response
CR: learned response

12. Figure 2.3 John B. Watson was the father of behaviorism.

13. Figure 2.2 The three phases of classical conditioning.

14. Learning Theories: Operant Conditioning
Probability of behavior based on environmental consequences
Reinforcement
Pleasant consequence
Increases probability
Punishment
Decreases probability
Unpleasant, aversive

15. Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory
Formerly called social learning theory
Humans think, anticipate, believe, etc.
Cognitive emphasis: observational learning
BoBo doll studies
Model praised or punished
Child learned to imitate rewarded model
Vicarious reinforcement

16. Learning Theory: Strengths & Weaknesses
Precise and testable theory
Carefully controlled experiments
Practical applications across lifespan
Weaknesses
Inadequate account of lifespan changes
Ignored genetic and maturational processes

17. Piaget: Cognitive Developmental Theory
Intelligence: Ability to adapt to environment
Constructivism: Understanding based on experience
Interactionist
Both biological maturation and experience required for progress
At each new stage, children think in a qualitatively different way

19. Cognitive Developmental Theory
Strengths
Well-accepted by developmentalists
Well-researched, mostly supported
Influenced education and parenting
Weaknesses
Ignores motivation and emotion
Stages not universal – esp. last one

20. Contextual/Systems Theories
Lev Vygotsky: Sociocultural perspective
Cognitive development is a social process
Problem solving aided by dialogues
Gottlieb: Evolutionary/Epigenetic Systems
Genes, neural activity, behavior, and environment mutually influential
Normal genes and normal early experiences most helpful