1. Covalent Bonding Chapter 9

2. Why do atoms bond? Atoms want to attain a full outer energy level of electrons. For hydrogen and helium, this requires 2 valence electrons. For all other elements this requires 8 valence electrons. When metals and nonmetals bond, electrons are transferred to provide each atom with a stable electron arrangement.

3. Octet rule – atoms lose, gain, or share electrons to achieve a stable octet of valence electrons. Nonmetals share electrons to acquire the electron configuration of noble gases.

4. The chemical bond that results from the sharing of valence electrons is a covalent bond. The shared electrons of a covalent bond are considered to be part of the complete outer energy level of both atoms involved.

5. Covalent bonding generally occurs when elements are relatively close to each other on the periodic table. A molecule is formed when two or more atoms bond covalently. –Carbohydrates, simple sugars, proteins, fats, DNA, wool, cotton, synthetic fibers in clothes

6. Diatomic Molecules Hydrogen (H 2 ), nitrogen (N 2 ), oxygen (O 2 ), fluorine (F 2 ), chlorine (Cl 2 ), bromine (Br 2 ), and iodine (I 2 ) occur in nature as diatomic molecules, not as single atoms because the molecules formed are more stable than the individual atoms.

7. When fluorine bonds, two electrons are shared to form a covalent bond. Each fluorine atom in the molecule has 3 lone pairs and 1 bonding pair of electrons.

8. When a single pair of electrons is shared, a single covalent bond forms. Lewis structures use electron-dot diagrams to show how electrons are arranged in molecules.

9. Lewis structure for a molecule Hydrogen bromide (HBr) is used to manufacture several other bromides and has been medically used as a sedative. Draw the Lewis structure for this molecule.

10. Multiple Covalent Bonds In many molecules, atoms attain a noble- gas configuration by sharing more than one pair of electrons between atoms, forming a multiple covalent bond. A double covalent occurs when two pairs of electrons are shared. A triple covalent bond is formed when three pairs of electrons are shared.

11. Lewis Structure for O2

12. Lewis structure for N2

13. Strength of Covalent Bonds The strength of a covalent bond depends on how much distance separates bonded nuclei or bond length. As the number of shared electron pairs increases, bond length decreases. A triple bond, sharing three electron pairs, has a shorter bond length than a single bond where only two electrons are shared. The shorter the bond length, the stronger the bond. Thus, single bonds are weaker than double bonds. Double bonds are weaker than triple bonds.

14. In chemical reactions, bonds in reactant molecules are broken and new bonds are formed as product molecules form. The total energy change of the chemical reaction is determined from the energy of the bonds broken and formed. Endothermic reactions occur when a greater amount of energy is required to break existing bonds in the reactants than is released when the new bonds form in the product molecules. Exothermic reactions occur when more energy is released forming new bonds than is required to break bonds in the initial reactants.

15. Naming Binary Molecules Binary molecules are composed of two different nonmetals and do not contain metals or ions. 1.The first element in the formula is always named first, using the entire element name. 2.The second element in the formula is named using the root of the element and adding the suffix –ide. 3.Prefixes are used to indicate the number of atoms of each type that are present. The first element in the formula never uses the prefix mono-.

16. Number of atoms Prefix 1mono- 2di- 3tri- 4tetra- 5penta- 6hexa- 7hepta- 8octa- 9nona- 10deca-

17. Name P 2 O 5

18. Some Common Compounds FormulaCommon NameMolecular Compound Name H2OWaterDihydrogen monoxide NH3AmmoniaNitrogen trihydride N2H4HydrazineDinitrogen tetrahydride N2ONitrous oxide (laughing gas)Dinitrogen monoxide NONitric oxideNitrogen monoxide

19. Molecular Structures The structural formula uses letter symbols and bonds to show relative positions of atoms Shared = Needed - Available

20. Lewis Structure for Polyatomic Ion Phosphate Ion

21. Resonance is a condition that occurs when more than one valid Lewis structure can be written for a molecule or ion. The two or more correct Lewis structures that represents a single molecule or ion are often referred to as resonant structures.

23. Draw the 2 resonance structures for the sulfur dioxide molecule.

24. Draw the 3 resonance structures for the sulfate ion.

25. VSEPR Model Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Model Electrons within a molecule will orientate themselves so that they are as far apart as possible. Because lone pairs are not shared between two nuclei, they occupy a larger orbital than shared electrons. Shared bonding orbitals are pushed away slightly by lone pairs.

27. Electronegativity and Polarity Remember that electronegativity is the relative ability of an atom to attract electrons in a chemical bond. The character and type of a chemical bond can be predicted using the electronegativity difference of the elements that are bonded.

28. For identical atoms, which have an electronegativity difference of zero, the electrons in the bond are equally shared between the two atoms and the bond is considered nonpolar covalent. A covalent bond formed between atoms of different elements does not have equal sharing of the electron pair because there is a difference in electronegativity. Unequal sharing results in a polar covalent bond.

29. As the difference in electronegativity increases, the bond becomes more ionic in character. An electronegativity difference of 1.7 is considered 50% ionic and 50% covalent. Ionic bonds form when the electronegativity difference is greater than 1.70.

31. Polar covalent bonds form because not all atoms that share electrons attract them equally. When a polar bond forms, the shared pair of electrons is pulled toward one of the atoms. The electrons spend more time around that atom than they do the other atom. Opposite charges occur at the ends of the bond. Using the symbols δ -, partially negative, and δ +, partially positive, next to a model of the molecule indicates the ___________ of a polar covalent bond.

32. The more electronegative atom is located at the partially negative end, while the less electronegative atom is found at the partially positive end. The resulting polar bond often is referred to as a dipole(two poles).

33. Molecular Polarity & Geometry If partial charges are balanced in a molecule because of the molecule’s shape, the molecule is said to be nonpolar.

34. Solubility of Polar Molecules Polar molecules and ionic compounds usually are soluble in polar substances, but nonpolar molecules dissolve only in nonpolar substances. Like dissolves like rule

35. Properties of Covalent Compounds In a covalent compound, the covalent bond between atoms is quite strong, but the attraction between individual molecules is relatively weak. The weak forces of attraction between individual molecules are known as intermolecular forces, or van der Waals forces.

36. Melting points and Boiling points are relatively low compared with those of ionic substances. Many molecular substances exist as gases or vaporize readily at room temperature. Covalent molecules form relatively soft solids.

37. Common salt (NaCl) melts at 804 °C. Cane sugar (C 12 H 22 O 11 ) begins to char at 160 °C.