1. Operant Conditioning

2. Comparing Classical and Operant Conditioning Both classical and operant conditioning use acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination. Classical conditioning uses reflexive behavior - behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus. –Ask: Is the behavior something the animal can control? NO. Does the animal have a choice in how to behave? NO. - Classical conditioning. Operant conditioning uses operant or voluntary behavior – voluntary behavior that is shaped by consequences. –Ask: Is the behavior something the animal can control? YES. Does the animal have a choice in how to behave? YES. - Operant Conditioning.

3. What is Operant Conditioning?

4. Operant Conditioning A type of learning in which the frequency of a behavior depends on the consequence that follows that behavior The frequency will increase if the consequence is reinforcing to the subject. The frequency will decrease if the consequence is not reinforcing or punishing to the subject.

5. The Law of Effect

6. Edward L. Thorndike ( 1874–1949)

7. Thorndike’s Puzzle Box

8. “Thorndike’s Puzzle Box” Video #8 from Worth’s Digital Media Archive for Psychology.“Thorndike’s Puzzle Box”

9. B. F. Skinner (1904–1990)

10. B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) Believed that internal factors like thoughts, emotions, and beliefs could not be used to explain behavior. Instead said that new behaviors were actively chosen by the organism Developed the fundamental principles and techniques of operant conditioning and devised ways to apply them in the real world Designed the Skinner Box, or operant chamber

11. The Skinner Box

12. Reinforcement/Punishment Reinforcement - Any consequence that increases the likelihood of the behavior it follows –Reinforcement is ALWAYS GOOD!!! Punishment - Any consequence that decreases the likelihood of the behavior it follows The subject determines if a consequence is reinforcing or punishing

13. Types of Reinforcement

14. Principles of Reinforcement Reinforcing/Desirable Stimulus Aversive/UnDesirable Stimulus Stimulus is presented or added to animal’s environment… Positive (+) Reinforcement Add something you DO LIKE. Behavior Increases Chocolate Positive (+) Punishment Add something you DO NOT LIKE. Behavior Decreases More chores Stimulus is removed or taken away from animal’s environment… Negative (-) Punishment TAKES AWAY something you DO LIKE. Behavior Decreases No TV Negative (-) Reinforcement TAKES AWAY something you DO NOT LIKE. Behavior Increases Fewer chores

15. Positive Reinforcement Strengthens a response by presenting a desirable stimulus after a response Anything that increases the likelihood of a behavior by following it with a desirable event or state The subject receives something they want (it is added or given) Will strengthen the behavior

16. Positive Reinforcement

17. Negative Reinforcement “Reward through ESCAPE” Strengthens a response by reducing or removing an aversive (disliked) stimulus Anything that increases the likelihood of a behavior by following it with the removal of an undesirable event or state Something the subject doesn’t like is removed (subtracted) Will strengthen the behavior Still a REWARD!!!!! It’s desirable.

18. Negative Reinforcement

19. Positive/Negative Reinforcement BOTH ARE GOOD THINGS!!!

20. Billy Throws a Tantrum Billy throws a tantrum, his parents give in for the sake of peace and quiet. How is this an example of positive reinforcement? The child’s tantrum is reinforced when the parents give in (pos. reinforcement). How is this ALSO an example of negative reinforcement? The parents’ behavior will be reinforced when Billy stops screaming (neg. reinforcement). They may continue to give in.

21. Primary Versus Secondary Reinforcement

22. Primary Reinforcement Something that is naturally reinforcing Examples: food, warmth, water, etc. The item is reinforcing in and of itself

24. Secondary Reinforcement Something that a person has learned to value or finds rewarding because it is paired or associated with a primary reinforcer Money is a good example. So are grades and signs of respect & approval.

26. Immediate Versus Delayed Reinforcement

27. Immediate Reinforcers Immediate reinforcers – behaviors that immediately precedes the reinforcer becomes more likely to occur –(This is true when training animals. Can’t wait for a long time before reinforcing or the animal. It won’t know what behavior you are reinforcing)

28. Delayed Reinforcers Also called Delayed Gratification – forgoing a small immediate reinforcement for a greater reinforcement later. Humans do this with paychecks, grades. When do we not do this? –Stay up late to watch TV when next day we’re tired. –Smoke for satisfaction now when later it will kill us.

29. Punishment: The Process of Punishment

30. Types of Punishment An undesirable consequence following a behavior The behavior ends a desirable state. Its effect is opposite of reinforcement – it decreases the frequency of behavior

32. Positive Punishment (Punishment by Application) Something is added to the environment you do NOT like. A verbal reprimand, extra chores, or something painful like a spanking

33. Negative Punishment (Punishment by Removal) Something is taken away that you DO LIKE. Lose a privilege, no TV, no dessert, grounded (lose freedom). “Time out” for toddlers takes them away from their activity.

34. The Good Effects of Punishment Punishment can effectively control certain behaviors if… –It comes immediately after the undesired behavior –It is consistent and not occasional Especially useful if teaching a child not to do a dangerous behavior Most still suggest reinforcing an incompatible behavior rather than using punishment

35. Bad Effects of Punishment Does not teach or promote alternative, acceptable behavior. Only tells what NOT to do while reinforcement tells what to do. Doesn’t prevent the undesirable behavior when away from the punisher in a “safe setting” Can lead to fear of the punisher, anxiety, and lower self-esteem Children who are punished physically may learn to use aggression as a means to solve problems.

36. How is Punishment & Reinforcement being used to treat severely autistic and/or violent children? See CNN video clip from Anderson Cooper 360. Do you think they should be using these conditioning methods on these kids?

37. Extinction In operant conditioning, the loss of a conditioned behavior when consequences no longer follow it. The subject no longer responds since the reinforcement or punishment has stopped.

38. Some Reinforcement Procedures: Shaping

39. Shaping Principles Shaping - procedure in which rewards, such as food, gradually guide an animal’s behavior toward a desired behavior. Successive approximations - shaping method in which you reward responses that are ever closer to the final desired behavior and ignore all other responses. Shaping nonverbal animals can show what they perceive. Train an animal to discriminate between classes of events or objects. –After being trained to discriminate between flowers, people, cars, and chairs, a pigeon can usually identify in which of these categories a new pictured object belongs

40. Skinner attached some horizontal stripes to the wall which he then used to gauge the dog's responses of lifting its head higher and higher. Then, he simply set about shaping a jumping response by flashing the strobe (and simultaneously taking a picture), followed by giving a meat treat, each time the dog satisfied the criterion for reinforcement. The result of this process is shown below, as it was in LOOK magazine, in terms of the pictures taken at different points in the shaping process. Within 20 minutes, Skinner had Agnes "running up the wall"

41. For the second shaping demonstration, Skinner trained Agnes to press the pedal and pop the top on the wastebasket. Again, the photographer's flash served as the conditioned reinforcer, and each step in the process was photographed. The results are shown below.

42. Schedules of Reinforcement

43. Continuous reinforcement A schedule of reinforcement in which a reward follows every correct response Learning occurs rapidly But the behavior will extinguish quickly once the reinforcement stops. –Once that reliable candy machine eats your money twice in a row, you stop putting money into it.

44. Partial Reinforcement A schedule of reinforcement in which a reward follows only some correct responses Learning of behavior will take longer But will be more resistant to extinction Includes the following types: –Fixed-interval and variable interval –Fixed-ratio and variable-ratio

45. Fixed-Ratio Schedule A partial reinforcement schedule that rewards a response only after some defined number of correct responses The faster the subject responds, the more reinforcements they will receive. i.e. piece work: You get $5 for every 10 widgets you make.

46. Variable-Ratio Schedule A partial reinforcement schedule that rewards an unpredictable average number of correct responses High rates of responding with little pause in order to increase chances of getting reinforcement This schedule is very resistant to extinction. Sometimes called the “gambler’s schedule”; similar to a slot machine or fishing

47. Fixed-Interval Schedule A partial reinforcement schedule that rewards only the first correct response after some defined period of time Produces gradual responses at first and increases as you get closer to the time of reinforcement Example: a known weekly quiz in a class, checking cookies after the 10 minute baking period.

48. Variable-Interval Schedule A partial reinforcement that rewards the first correct response after an unpredictable amount of time Produces slow and steady responses Example: “pop” quiz in a class

49. Schedules of Reinforcement

50. Ask Yourself… Is the example dealing with the animal doing a behavior? - Ratio –Does the number of times the animal does the behavior vary for reinforcement? Variable –Does the animal do the behavior a set number of times for reinforcement? Fixed Is the example dealing with the amount of time that elapses from the behavior till it gets reinforcement? - Interval –Does the amount time between the behavior and reinforcement vary? Variable –Is the amount of time between the behavior and reinforcement stay the same? Fixed

51. Class Activity 4 Volunteers are needed to demonstrate schedules of reinforcement No punishment will be used. You will remain dry for the entire activity.

52. Variable Ratio 1:1/ 7:1 / 4:1 / 12:1 / 8:1 / 19:1 / 3:1 / 2:1 / 2:1 / 5:1 / 16:1 / 11:1 / 3:1 / 8:1 / 4:1 Fixed Ratio 7:1 / 7:1 / 7:1 / 7:1 / 7:1,…. 15 times Fixed Interval 10 sec:1 / 10 sec:1 / 10 sec:1 /,… 15 times Variable Interval 6 sec:1 / 8 sec:1 / 10 sec:1 / 3 sec:1 / 7 sec:1 / 14 sec:1 / 15 sec:1 / 8 sec:1 / 5 sec:1 / 12 sec:1 / 6 sec:1 / 9 sec:1 / 13 sec:1/15 sec:1 / 8 sec:1

53. New Understandings of Operant Conditioning: The Role of Cognition

54. Skinner & Thorndike Believed that cognitions (thoughts), perceptions, and expectations have no place in psychology. This is because they cannot be studied through observation and therefore were seen as not being objective.

55. Latent Learning Learning that takes place in absence of an apparent reward Idea developed by E.C. Tolman

56. E.C. Tolman’s Rat Maze Experiment Three groups of rats were trained to run a maze. The control group, Group 1, was fed upon reaching the goal. The first experimental group, Group 2, was not rewarded for the first six days of training, but found food in the goal on day seven and everyday thereafter. The second experimental group, Group 3, was not rewarded for the first two days, but found food in the goal on day three and everyday thereafter.

57. Tolman’s Rat Maze Experiment (continued) Both of the experimental groups demonstrated fewer errors when running the maze the day after the transition from no reward to reward conditions. The marked performance continued throughout the rest of the experiment. This suggested that the rats had learned during the initial trials of no reward and were able to use a "cognitive map" of the maze when the rewards were introduced. The initial learning that occurred during the no reward trials was what Tolman referred to as latent learning. He argued that humans engage in this type of learning everyday as we drive or walk the same route daily and learn the locations of various buildings and objects. Only when we need to find a building or object does learning become obvious.

58. Cognitive Map A mental representation of a place Experiments showed rats could learn a maze without any reinforcements

59. Other evidence that we do think! Animals on a fixed-interval reinforcement schedule though respond more frequently as the time approaches for their reinforcer as if they expect that the response will produce the reward

60. Overjustification Effect The effect of promising a reward for doing what someone already likes to do The reward may lessen and replace the person’s original, natural motivation, so that the behavior stops if the reward is eliminated –The person may now see the reward, rather than intrinsic interest, as the motivation for performing the task. –“If I have to be bribed into doing this, then it’s not worth doing for its own sake.” Rewards do help increase interest when used to indicate a job well done

61. Learned Helplessness Dogs in electrified cage at first not able to escape the impending shock. Later, all they had to do was cross to the other side but they didn’t even try. The dogs had learned they were “helpless” to avoid the shock and just sat there and took it without trying to escape.

62. Learned Helplessness Exposure to inescapable and uncontrollable aversive events produces passive behavior. If an animal believes or expects it cannot escape undesirable circumstances, it will give up trying to escaping those circumstances. To overcome this, one must establish a sense of control over one’s environment and see some success.

63. Biological Predispositions Animal training issues – easier to train behaviors that are closer to natural behaviors using a natural reinforcer (food). Instinctive drift—naturally occurring behaviors that interfere with operant responses. What happens when a trained tiger shows instinctive drift?

64. Classical Conditioning vs. Operant Conditioning