1. Lecture 6: Flight Instruments
AVIATION HISTORY
Lecture 6: Flight Instruments

2. Modern Flight Instruments
Airbus A320 Glass Cockpit

3. Introduction
History
The very first aircraft had little or no flight instruments
Flying during bad weather was risky
Navigation depended on pilot’s ability to use landmarks or dead reckoning.

4. Dead reckoning (DR)
Dead Reckoning is the process of estimating your position by advancing a known position using speed, time and distance to be traveled.
Term originated with maritime navigation and refers to "reckoning “or reasoning (one's position) relative to something stationary (dead) in the water."
Dead Reckoning is the process of estimating your position by advancing a known position using course, speed, time and distance to be traveled. In other words figuring out where you will be at a certain time if you hold the speed, time and course you plan to travel.
According to popular definition, dead reckoning is short for "deduced reckoning" or, as the old-timers used to say "you're dead if you don't reckon right." In truth, however, the term originated with maritime navigation and refers to "reckoning or reasoning (one's position) relative to something stationary or dead in the water."

5. Flying Instrument
As airmail pilots began flying at night and in all kinds of weather in 1920’s, new instruments were developed to enable the aircraft to fly.
Night Flight
Advantages:
Air smoother
Less air traffic
May be easier to detect other aircraft due to aircraft lights
Disadvantages:
Difficult to select emergency landing site
Difficult to see clouds
Difficult to see horizon in poor visibility
Difficult to see horizon over large body of open water without any lights on surface
Horizontal visibility significantly less than directly down in haze/fog
Haze and open water combine to lead to loss of spatial orientation

6. Definition ‘Flight Instruments’
The instruments that used to display aircraft information and to control the orientation of the aircraft during flight.
Speed, distance, altitude, attitude, direction, temperature and pressure are measured and the measurements are displayed on display panel in the cockpit

7. Birth of Flight Instruments
Then, on September 24, with Mitchell Field engulfed in fog--Doolittle and Kelsey climbed aboard the NY-2. Doolittle put the hood in place while Kelsey lifted his hands for bystanders to see that it was Doolittle at the controls.
The NY-2 began its takeoff roll and soon disappeared into the weather. Doolittle flew away from the field, climbed to 1,000 feet and then turned toward Mitchell Field, navigating on the radio beacon supplied by the National Bureau of Standards. Once he established himself "inbound," he began a gradual descent, landing within a few feet from where he began his historic flight just 15 minutes before.
"Fog Peril Overcome," heralded the New York Times. It was a new day for commercial aviation. The principles of instrument flight had been proven and the navigational problems associated with weather were overcome.
Birth of Flight Instruments
September 24, 1929, First FLYING BLIND performed by Jimmy Doolittle’s.
Flying Blind means fly by the aid of Flight Instrument only, without a view outside the cockpit.

8. First Flight Instruments
1. Visual radio direction finder
Using vibration system to direct the aircraft. The closer the plane is to the beacon, the more intense the vibration.
2. Artificial horizon (Attitude Indicator)
Showed the orientation of the flying aircraft in relation to the ground (show how the wings were tilted, show whether aircraft nose up/down /level.
3. Barometric Altimeter
Showed how far the aircraft above the ground. They will sensitively record the time and therefore the distance from the aircraft to the ground.

9. Types of Flight (VFR or IFR)
Different between VFR and IFR
VFR (Visual Flight Rules)
Flying depends on pilot by “see and avoid” procedure.
IFR (Instrument Flight Rules)
Flying depends on pilot and Air Traffic Controller (ATC).
Pilot depends on flight instruments to know the aircraft’s condition, route or weather condition.
VFR (Visual Flight Rules)
Separation maintained by pilot (“see and avoid”)
Under weather conditions where the visibility is sufficient to see and avoid other aircraft, and the pilot can keep sufficiently clear of clouds, the pilot may operate under visual flight rules (VFR). Under VFR rules the pilot may or may not fly under ATC
positive control.
Visual Flight Rules (VFR) pilots must fly in good weather, and are required to keep a specific distance from clouds with a strict minimum visual requirement. The pilot visually controls altitude, navigation and is responsible for maintaining safe distances from other aircraft and obstacles (terrain).
IFR (Instrument Flight Rules)
Separation maintained by controller
When visibility is insufficient or a pilot’s route takes the aircraft through clouds, the aircraft must fly under IFR.
Rules of the road for flights permitted to penetrate clouds and low visibility conditions by reference to cockpit. flight instruments and radio navigation.
Aircraft must be equipped and pilots qualified and current for IFR flight. Flight plans and ATC clearances are required. Flights are monitored and traffic separated by Air Traffic Control, usually by radar.
Instrument Flight Rule (IFR) training combined with the necessary instrumentation and the support of Air Traffic Control allows continued flight operations in reduced or no visibility situations. All major airline pilots are IFR trained.
IFR pilots are further trained to use on- board instrumentation to fly, and must communicate with Air Traffic Control, when operating above 18,000 feet. Instead of using only visuals, ATC can support them in navigation through bad weather and in separation from other aircraft and terrain.

10. Why Flight Instruments Important
To enable the aircraft fly through the bad weather conditions and during night.
To ensure safety and reliable operation.
To give the early warning about any failure of aircraft’s system/part so that the pilot could take the immediate action.
For safety and reliable operation
The first aircraft instruments is fuel & oil pressure instruments
To warn of engine trouble so that the aircraft could be landed before engine failed).
As aircraft could fly over considerable distances weather became a problem.
Instrument systems were developed to fly through bad weather conditions.
Speed, distance, altitude, attitude, direction, temperature and pressure are measured and the measurements are displayed on display panel in the cockpit

11. Basic Flight Instruments

12. Vertical Speed Indicator
Six Basic Instruments
Airspeed Indicator
Attitude Indicator
Altimeter
Heading Indicator
Vertical Speed Indicator
Turn Indicator

13. Flight instruments are usually grouped in a certain way and positioned directly in front of the pilot, taking the most dominant part of the instrument panel. On modern aircraft the indication of individual flight instruments is integrated on one screen, so called “primary flight display”.

14. 1. Altimeter Also called as Altitude Meter
To indicate how high the aircraft is from sea level (altitude).
Measured in feet.
It works by measuring air pressure that enter through pitot-static system.
Air pressure increases and decreases as the aircraft descends and climbs
Gives the aircraft's height (usually in feet or meters) above some reference level (usually sea-level) by measuring the local air pressure.
It is adjustable for local barometric pressure (referenced to sea level) which must be set correctly to obtain accurate altitude readings.

15. 2.Airspeed Indicator Tells the pilot how fast the plane is going.
To shows the aircraft's speed relative to the surrounding air.
Speed is measured in knots.
The airspeed can be calculated by measuring the differences of air pressure.
Air pressure is measure using
pitot-static system.
Air speed indicator – ASI is an instrument that provides information on the horizontal speed of the aircraft in reference to the surrounding air (not the ground). Since this factor (the airspeed) has very big influence on the lift created by the wings, this instrument and its indication has great importance for the safety of flight.

16. 3.Vertical Speed Indicator
To display the vertical speed of the aircraft.
It used to maintain proper rate of climb and rate of descend
Measured in feet per minute.
Rate of change is also measured based on air pressure differences through pitot-static system.
The vertical speed indicator (VSI) measures the rate of change in static air pressure and converts the information to feet per minute. The dial informs the pilot how many feet per minute the aircraft is climbing or descending.

17. Pitot-static System
PITOT-TUBE

18. 4. Attitude Indicator How the attitude indicator works
To show the aircraft's attitude relative to the horizon.
Also called as artificial horizon.
Shows whether wings are level or not and whether aircraft pitch up or down.
How the attitude indicator works
Uses a gyroscope mounted inside the instrument case
Gyroscope is a device, used to provide stability or maintain a fixed orientation
The gyro rotates in the horizontal plane in relation to earth’s horizon
This happens as the aircraft banks, climbs and descends

19. Attitude Indicator Examples

20. 5. Heading Indicator
To displays aircraft heading/direction with respect to earth’s magnetic north.
Also called directional gyro or gyro compass (Use the gyroscope)
When the aircraft turns, the needle indicates which direction it is heading.
Measured in degrees (0-north, 90-west, 180-south, and 270-east)

21. 6. Turn Indicator
To display direction of turn and rate of turn. Use the gyroscope.
For example, direction of roll while the aircraft is rolling.
Measured in degrees per minute
How the turn coordinator works
a gyro is mounted at a 30 degree angle inside instrument case
as the aircraft turns , applied forces cause the gyro to spin and rotate
as this happens, the small plane on the instrument face indicates bank

22. Modern Flight Instruments
“Glass Cockpit”

23. Glass Cockpit

24. Glass Cockpit History
1970: NASA conducted research on flight instruments displays
1982: The success of the NASA-led glass cockpit work is reflected in the total acceptance of electronic flight displays in Boeing 767.
By the end of the 1990s, LCD display panels were increasingly favored among aircraft manufacturers because of their efficiency, reliability and legibility.
Nowadays, Modern aircraft such as the Boeing 777, Boeing 787, and Boeing , Boeing ER, Airbus A320 family (enhanced version), Airbus A330, Airbus A340 , Airbus A380 and Airbus A350 are fitted with glass cockpits consisting of liquid crystal display (LCD) units

25. Glass Cockpit
A glass cockpit is an aircraft cockpit that feature EFIS (Electronic Flight Instrument System)
On a glass cockpit aircraft, traditional flight instruments are replaced by an EFIS through LCD screens displaying flight information in most convenient form, each screen integrating several instruments.
A glass cockpit is an aircraft cockpit that feature EFIS (Electronic Flight Instrument System)
Unlike the earlier type of flight instruments, a glass cockpit utilizes several computer displays that can be adjusted to display flight information as needed
EFIS installations vary greatly. A light aircraft might be equipped with one display unit, on which are displayed flight and navigation data. A wide-body aircraft is likely to have six or more display units.
An EFIS installation will have the following components:
Displays
Controls
Data processors
Advantages of the glass cockpit:
cleaner appearance
larger artificial horizon
greater redundancy in case of failure
more flexible and accurate navigational options
Programmability
Perhaps the biggest functional advantage of newer equipment in aircraft is GPS technology. The sorry state of general aviation is that most of us fly 30 year old airplanes, with instruments that use 50 year old technology. Sometimes older. Non-directional beacons are still in use, and that technology is from the 1920's. The result is that now, most pilots who rent airplanes also have a hand-held GPS to take on flights.
The downsides to a handheld GPS are size and functionality. They can't be relied on during instrument flight, and the screens are generally very small. A large map screen on the G1000 makes for extremely easy navigation.
A basic EFIS might have all these facilities in the one unit.
EFIS (Electronic Flight Instrument System)
Provides six CRT of LCD screens displaying flight information in most convenient form, each screen integrating several instruments.
Displays all information regarding the aircraft’s situation, position and progress.
Comprising left- and right-side primary flight display (PFD) and navigation display screens EFIS primarily
Electronic Centralized Aircraft Monitor (ECAM)
The upper ECAM screen displays engine, flaps setting, fuel quantity and alert information and is named the E/WD (Engine/Warning Display) ;
the lower ECAM displays the various systems parameters and is known as the SD (System Display). Classic mechanical backup instruments are still provided (anemometer, artificial horizon and altimeter).
Flight Management System (FMS)
integrates the several calculators which provide lateral (or surface) and vertical navigation as well as aircraft systems (including engines) management.
The interface between the pilot and the FMS is the MCDU (for Multifunction Control Display Unit)which is programmed before the flight and can be reprogrammed at any time during the flight.
The Flight Control Unit (FCU) integrates the Autopilot (AP) and Flight Director switches and communicates with the MCDU.
Autopilot- Computer device that can fly an airplane on its own, Mostly used on long flights. However, pilot is always present to monitor and check in whether the flight is going according to plan or not.
Electronic Altitude Director Indicator (EADI): Tells the pilot whether the airplane is flying level or not.

26. EFIS (Electronic Flight Instrument System)
Apache Cockpit
EFIS installations vary greatly.
A light aircraft might be equipped with one display unit, on which are displayed flight and navigation data.
A wide-body aircraft is likely to have six or more display units.
Boeing 777 Cockpit
Bell 430 Cockpit
F/A Glass Cockpit

27. EFIS (Electronic Flight Instrument System)
An EFIS installation will have the following components:
PFD: Primary Flight Display
ND: Navigation Display
ECAM: Electronic Centralized Aircraft Monitor
FMS: Flight Management System

28. 1. Primary Flight Display (PFD)

29. 1. Primary Flight Display (PFD)
PFD replaces the traditional flight instruments.
The PFD displays all information critical to flight, including airspeed, altitude, heading, attitude & vertical speed
PFDs also increase awareness by alerting the aircrew to potentially hazardous conditions (for example, low airspeed, high rate of descent )by changing the color or shape of the display or by providing audio alerts.

30. 1. Primary Flight Display (PFD)
The PFD is designed to improve a pilot's situational awareness by integrating all information into a single display.
The PFD is also designed to reduce the amount of time necessary to monitor the instruments.

31. 2. Navigation Display

32. Navigational Display - ND
IANS / ATC Training / Courses / Basic / ACFT
ACFT 4
INS & GPS
Navigational Display - ND
The Navigational Display (ND), sometimes referred as Electronic Horizontal Situation Indicator (EHSI), is a part of EFIS that displays integrated navigational information from all navigational sources (IRS, VOR, DME, ILS, ADF and flight management computer) using digital display and electronically generated symbols. In addition, it displays weather radar and TCAS information. The pilot can select most convenient mode of operation of the ND, depending on the phase of flight, manoeuvre executed and the navigation complexity. Some examples are shown below.
Edition 1.1

33. 2. Navigation Display
ND shows navigational information from multiple system. (VOR, DME, ILS)
ND also displays weather information from multiple systems (on-board radar or lightning detection sensors)
Similar with the PFD, the ND can change the color or shape of the data to alert the aircrew to hazardous situations.
Best example integration is Navigation or Horizontal Situation Display
Pilot refers only to one display rather than many displays on conventional cockpits
Information form many sources; ground radio aids, inertial platform, weather and ground mapping radar
Presenting a single integrated picture or can selected in isolation through operation of button on the display for use

34. 3. Electronic Centralized Aircraft Monitor (ECAM):

35. 3. Electronic Centralized Aircraft Monitor (ECAM)
ECAM also known as MFD (Multifunction Display)
ECAM monitors the overall aircraft systems, including its fuel, electrical and engine systems.
Give the pilots warning when there is a malfunction.
For example, if an engine begins to lose oil pressure, the ECAM might sound an alert, switch the display to the page with the oil system information and outline the low oil pressure data with a red box.

36. Electronic Centralized Aircraft Monitor (ECAM)
The upper ECAM screen displays engine, flaps setting, fuel quantity and alert information.
The lower ECAM displays the various systems parameters.

37. EFIS (Electronic Flight Instrument System)

38. 4. Flight Management System (FMS)
Multifunction Control Display Unit
(MCDU)
The Flight Management System (FMS) can be thought of as the ‘brain’ of the aircraft navigation system, which assists pilots in navigation and flight preparation to compute the most efficient flight in fuel and time savings and automatically navigate the aircraft. It calculates performance
data and the most fuel-efficient route to be flown based on typical aircraft parameters such as weight, cruise altitude and actual aircraft position,
regardless of weather conditions.

39. 4. Flight Management System (FMS)
The flight management system (FMS) is the avionics that holds the flight plan, and allows the pilot to modify as required in flight.
Given the position and the flight plan, the FMS guides the aircraft along the flight plan.
The FMS is normally controlled by Multifunction Control Display Unit (MCDU)

40. Autopilot (AP)
Autopilot is a Computer device that can fly an airplane on its own.
Mostly used on long flights.
However, pilot is always present to monitor and check in whether the flight is going according to plan or not.

41. Question Bank
Briefly, explain the risks of flying with no instruments. Provide three (3) reasons why flight instruments are importance.(9M)
Describe three (3) earlier instruments developed that had enabled aircraft to fly at night and in bad whether. (6M)

42. Question Bank State the definition of Flight instruments. (3M)
Explain six (6) basic flight instruments and their functions (12M)

43. Question Bank Give definition for Glass Cockpit. (3M)
Explain four (4) Electronic Flight Instrument System available in modern aircraft (12M)

44. The End