1. Planning for Earthwork Construction
Chapter 3
Planning for Earthwork Construction
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

2. Planning for Earthwork Construction
Every construction project is a unique undertaking. Therefore, planning is undertaken to understand the problems and to develop courses of action.

3. Planning Earthwork Construction
Review the Contract Documents
Study the plans
Plan the Work
Perform quantity take-off
Determine costs

4. Planning Earthwork Construction
A site visit is strongly recommended to relate the physical site characteristics to the work details.

5. Planning Earthwork Construction
After the site visit is completed, the planner determines the quantity of materials that will have to be furnish or move.
The takeoff or
"quantity survey."

6. Quantity Take-off available engineering and design data.
Must be as accurate as possible, and should be based on all
available engineering and design data.

7. Planning Earthwork Construction
During the takeoff, the planner must make decisions concerning:
equipment needs
sequence of operations
and crew size

8. Graphical Presentation of Earthwork
Three kinds of views are presented in the contract documents to show earthwork construction features:
Plan view
Profile view
Cross section view

9. Plan View
The plan view is looking down on the proposed work and presents the horizontal alignment of features
Figure | Plan view of a highway project.
What does P.C. mean?

10. Profile View
The profile view is a cut view typically along the centerline of the work.
It presents the vertical alignment of features.

11. Cross Section View
A view formed by a plane cutting the work at a right angle to its long axis
When the ground surface is regular, sections are typically taken at every full station (100 ft)
When the ground is irregular, sections must be taken at closer intervals & at points of change

12. Cross section for a fill (left side)
Cross section for a fill (left side) Cross section for a cut (right side)
Figure | Earthwork cross sections.

13. Earthwork Quantities Calculation of earthwork volumes
Earthwork computations involve:
Calculation of earthwork volumes
Balancing of cuts and fills
Planning of the most economical material hauls.

14. End-Area Determination
Most organizations use commercial computer software and digitizing tablets to calculate cross section end areas.

15. End-Area Determination
Other methods include the use of a planimeter, subdivision of the area into geometric figures with definite formulas for areas (rectangles, triangles, parallelograms and trapezoids), and the use of the trapezoidal formula.

16. Trapezoidal Computations
If the calculations must be made by hand, the area formula for a triangle and a trapezoid are used to compute the volume.
Area of a triangle = ½ hw
Area of a trapezoid =

17. General Trapezoidal Formula
Area =

18. Average End Area Method
Volume [net cy] =
Assumes that the ground between the two end areas changes in a linear fashion.
The principle is that the volume of the solid bounded by two parallel, or nearly parallel, cross sections is equal to the average of the two end areas times the distance between the cross sections along their centerline

19. Average End Area
Figure | Volume between two end areas

20. Average End Area
Figure | Volume between two end areas

21. Average End Area
Figure | Volume between two end areas

22. Net Volume Bank cubic yards (bcy) Loose cubic yards (lcy)
Compacted cubic yards (ccy)
lcy
ccy
bcy

23. Mass Diagram
Earthmoving is basically an operation where material is removed from high spots and deposited in low spots with the “making up” of any deficit with borrow or the wasting of excess cut material.

24. Mass Diagram
The mass diagram is an excellent method of analyzing linear earthmoving operations.
It is a graphical means for measuring haul distance (stations) in terms of earthwork volume (cubic yards).

25. Mass Diagram Aids in identifying:
Where to utilize specific types of equipment,
Where quantities of material are required,
Average haul distance,
Haul grades.

26. Earthwork Volume Calculation Sheet
An earthwork volume sheet, can easily be constructed using a spreadsheet program. It permits a systematic recording of information and completing the necessary earthwork calculations

27. Earthwork Volume Calculation Sheet
Table 3.1, page 73

28. Stations. Column 1 is a listing of all stations at which cross-sectional areas have been recorded.

29. Area of cut. Column 2 is the cross-sectional area of the cut at each station. Usually this area must be computed from the project cross sections.

30. Area of fill. Column 3 is the cross-sectional area of the fill at each station. Usually this area must be computed from the project cross sections. Note there can be both cut and fill at a station.

31. Volume of cut. Column 4 is the volume of cut between the adjacent preceding station and the station. This is a bank volume.

32. Volume of fill. Column 5 is the volume of fill between the adjacent preceding station and the station. The average-end-area formula, This is a compacted volume.

33. STRIPPING
For cut sections subtract the stripping.

34. STRIPPING For fill sections the stripping is a cut
quantity; plus an equal amount must
be added to the embankment quantity.

35. Column 6 is the stripping volume of topsoil over the cut between the adjacent preceding station and the station. This represents a bank volume of cut material. Topsoil material is not suitable for use in the embankment.
This volume is commonly calculated by multiplying the distance between stations or fractions of stations by the width of the cut. This provides the area of the cut footprint. The footprint area is then multiplied by an average depth of topsoil to derive the stripping volume. The average depth of topsoil must be determined by field investigation.

36. Column 7 is the stripping volume of topsoil under the fill between the adjacent preceding station and the station. The stripping is a bank volume but it also represents an additional requirement for fill material, compacted volume of fill.
This volume is commonly calculated by multiplying the distance between stations or fractions of stations by the width of the cut. This provides the area of the cut footprint. The footprint area is then multiplied by an average depth of topsoil to derive the stripping volume. The average depth of topsoil must be determined by field investigation.

37. Column 8 is the total volume of cut material available for use in embankment construction. It is derived by subtracting the cut stripping (column 6) from the cut volume (column 4), both are bank volume quantities.

38. Column 9 is the total volume of fill required
Column 9 is the total volume of fill required. It is derived by adding the fill stripping (column 7) to the fill volume (column 5), both are compacted volume quantities.

39. Column 10 is the total fill volume converted from compacted volume to bank volume

40. Column 11 is the difference between column 10 and column 8
Column 11 is the difference between column 10 and column 8. This indicates the volume of material that is available (cut is positive) or required (fill is negative) within station increments after intrastation balancing.

41. Mass Ordinate
Column 12 is the running total of column 11 values from some point of beginning on the project profile.

42. MASS DIAGRAM PLOTTING Volume scale (cy) Horizontal scale (stations)
1000
500
Volume scale (cy)
- 500
- 1000
ON OUR MASS DIAGRAM SHEETS THE BOTTOM SECTION IS THE ACTUAL MASS DIAGRAM. THE UPPER PORTION CONTAINS A PROFILE VIEW SHOWING THE PLOTTED ELEVATIONS AT CENTERLINE OF THE PROPOSED CONSTRUCTION AND THE EXISTING TERRAIN. WE WILL USE THIS PROFILE TO ASSIST US IN DETERMINING AVERAGE PERCENT OF GRADE OUR EQUIPMENT WILL BE OPERATING ON.
LETS LOOK IN DETAIL AT THE BOTTOM SECTION. ALONG THE ENTIRE BOTTOM OF OUR SHEET RUNS OUR HORIZONTAL SCALE WHICH IS OUR STATION NUMBERS, THIS IS THE ONLY THING OUR MASS DIAGRAM AND PROFILE VIEW SHARE, A COMMON REFERENCE INDICATOR. TO THE LEFT IS OUR VOLUME SCALE, REPRESENTING AMOUNTS OF MATERIAL IN COMPACTED CUBIC YARDS.
0 + 00
1 + 00
2 + 00
3 + 00
4 +00
5 + 00
6 + 00
Horizontal scale (stations)

43. MASS DIAGRAM PLOTTING STATION 0+50 - 138 CY 1000 500 - 500 - 1000
- 500
- 1000
REFER BACK TO YOUR EARTHWORK VOLUME SHEETS FROM THE PRACTICAL EXERCISE. WE WILL USE THE INFORMATION FROM COLUMNS 1 (STATION NUMBER) AND 12 (MASS ORDINATE) TO PLOT OUR MASS DIAGRAM.
AT STATION 1+00 WE HAD A MASS ORDINATE OF CCYS OF MATERIAL. FIND STATION NUMBER 1+00 ON THE BOTTOM HORIZONTAL SCALE. FOLLOW THIS LINE UP TO THE ZERO BALANCE LINE FOR VOLUME (LEFT HAND SCALE) IF WE ARE AT ZERO AND OUR NUMBER TO PLOT IS A NEGATIVE THEN WE KNOW WE MUST WORK BELOW THE ZERO LINE TO PLOT THIS REQUIREMENT. EACH LINE ON OUR SHEET REPRESENTS 50 CCYS OF MATERIAL WHEN USING OUR VOLUME SCALE, SO IF WE ARE GOING TO PLOT A VOLUME OF 191CCYS WE WOULD GO DOWN TO ALMOST TO THE FORTH LINE AND MAKE A DOT. WE HAVE JUST PLOTTED OUR FIRST STATION.
0 + 00
1 + 00
2 + 00
3 + 00
4 +00
5 + 00
6 + 00

44. MASS DIAGRAM PLOTTING STATION 1 +00 - 405 CY 1000 500 - 500 - 1000
- 500
- 1000
YOU WOULD THEN PLOT YOUR REMAINING STATIONS IN A SIMILAR FASHION.
0 + 00
1 + 00
2 + 00
3 + 00
4 +00
5 + 00
6 + 00

45. MASS DIAGRAM PLOTTING STATION 3 +50 518 CY 1000 500 - 500 - 1000
- 500
- 1000
0 + 00
1 + 00
2 + 00
3 + 00
4 +00
5 + 00
6 + 00

46. MASS DIAGRAM PLOTTING CONNECT THE POINTS 1000 500 - 500 - 1000 0 + 00
- 500
- 1000
0 + 00
1 + 00
2 + 00
3 + 00
4 +00
5 + 00
6 + 00

47. MASS DIAGRAM Descending lines
1000
Embankment requirements exceeds excavation quantity.
500
-500
WHEN OUR LINE GOES DOWN THIS IS SHOWING US FILL SECTIONS (REMEMBER I FILL DOWN)
- 1000
Descending lines
0 + 00
1 + 00
2 + 00
3 + 00
4 +00
5 + 00
6 + 00

48. MASS DIAGRAM Ascending lines
1000
Ascending lines
500
-500
LINES ON OUR MASS DIAGRAM EITHER GO UP OR DOWN. IF THE LINE GOES UP THIS IS A REPRESENTATION OF CUTTING MATERIAL (THINK UPPER CUT)
- 1000
Excavation exceeds embankment requirements
0 + 00
1 + 00
2 + 00
3 + 00
4 +00
5 + 00
6 + 00

49. MASS DIAGRAM
ONCE AGAIN A NODE IS A EQUAL BALANCE OF MATERIAL BEING CUT AS THAT IS REQUIRED FOR FILL.

50. MASS DIAGRAM Zero balance line Excavation quantity equals
1000
500
Zero balance line
-500
LETS TALK SOME MORE ABOUT OUR ZERO BALANCE LINE. EVERY TIME THE LINE THAT WE JUST DREW (CALLED THE MASS DIAGRAM) CROSSES THE ZERO BALANCE LINE THERE IS EXACTLY AS MUCH MATERIAL FILLED AS THERE IS CUT, OR A ZERO BALANCE OF EXCESS OR DEFICIT MATERIAL AT THAT POINT.
- 1000
Excavation quantity equals
embankment requirement.
0 + 00
1 + 00
2 + 00
3 + 00
4 +00
5 + 00
6 + 00

51. MASS DIAGRAM Maximum is where the cut transitions into fill.
Maximum and minimum points
Maximum is where the cut transitions into fill.
Minimum is where the fill transitions into cut.

52. MASS DIAGRAM Transition point Maximum and minimum points 1000 500 -500
-500
WHEN OUR LINE STOPS GOING ONE DIRECTION AND STARTS GOING ANOTHER THIS IS CALLED A TRANSITION POINT. BECAUSE WE ARE TRANSITIONING FROM FILL TO CUT. OR VISA - VERSA
- 1000
Transition point
0 + 00
1 + 00
2 + 00
3 + 00
4 +00
5 + 00
6 + 00

53. MASS DIAGRAM Final position 410 cy waste 90 cy Stations borrow
500 cy
90 cy
borrow
Stations
Above the zero line indicates waste.
Below the zero line indicates borrow.

54. MASS DIAGRAM Descending lines? Crossing the zero volume line?
Is a graphical means for measuring haul in terms of station yards.
Ascending lines?
Descending lines?
Crossing the zero volume line?
Max. and min. points?
Final position?

55. A mass diagram is a running total of the quantity of material that is surplus or deficient along the project profile. An excavation operation produces an ascending mass diagram curve; the excavation quantity exceeds the embankment quantity requirements. Excavation is occurring between stations A and B, and stations D and E in Fig The total volume of excavation between A and B is obtained by projecting horizontally to the vertical axis the mass diagram line points at stations A and B and reading the difference of the two volumes. Conversely, if the operation is a fill situation, there is a deficiency of material and a descending curve is produced; the embankment requirements exceed the excavation quantity being generated. Filling is occurring between stations B and D. The volume of fill can be determined in a manner similar to the excavation examination by a projection of the mass diagram line points to the vertical scale.
The maximum or minimum points on the mass diagram, where the curve transitions from rising to falling or falling to rising, indicate a change from an excavation to fill situation or vice versa. These points are referred to as transition points. On the ground profile, the grade line is crossing the ground line (see Fig at station B and D).
When the mass diagram curve crosses the datum (or zero volume) line (as at station C) exactly as much material is being excavated (between stations A and C) as is required for fill between B and C. There is no excess or deficit of material at that point in the project. The final position of the mass diagram curve above or below the datum line indicates whether the project has surplus material that must be wasted or if there is a deficiency which must be made up by borrowing material from outside the project limits. Figure 13.6 station E indicates a waste situation and excess material will have to be removed from the project.

56. Economical Haul Distances
Machine type
Economical haul distance
Large dozers, pushing material
Up to 300 ft
Push-loaded scrapers
300 to 5,000 ft
Trucks
> than 5,000 ft
Table | Economical haul distances based on basic machine types

57. Mass Diagram With a Balance Line
Figure | Mass diagram with a balance line.
If the curve is above the balance line, the direction of haul is from left to right, i.e., up stationing. When the curve is below the balance line the haul is from right to left, i.e., down stationing.

58. Haul Distances
Page 81

59. Haul Distances Average haul = area / quantity (cy)
Haul No. 3 quantity -17,080
Haul No. 1 quantity?

60. Haul Distance

61. Haul Distance
Area under diagram
Average haul No. 3 stations

62. Consolidated Average Hauls
Using the individual average hauls and the quantity associated with each, a project average haul can be calculated. Consider the three hauls and their sum of vertical’s average haul distances. By multiplying each haul quantity by its respective haul distance a station-yard value can be determined.

63. Consolidated Average Hauls
Stations
Haul 1 11,459 bcy ,221 sta-cy
Haul ,590 bcy ,727 sta-cy
Haul 3 17,080 bcy ,654 sta-cy
34,129 bcy ,602 sta-cy
272,602 sta-cy = 8.0 stations
34,129 bcy

64. Consolidated Average Hauls
Stations
Haul 1 11,459 bcy ,221 sta-cy
Haul ,590 bcy ,727 sta-cy
17,049 bcy ,948 sta-cy
58,948 sta-cy = 3.5 stations
17,049 bcy
Haul 3 17,080 bcy stations

65. Pricing Earthwork Operations
The cost of earthwork operations will vary with the kind of soil or rock encountered and the methods used to excavate, haul, and place the material in its final deposition.

66. Spreading Dumped Embankment Material with a Dozer

67. Water Truck and Roller used to Compaction Embankment Material

68. Three-link Earthwork System
Spread & compact
Excavate & load
Haul, dump, return