1. Chapter 18 Short-Term Finance and Planning
Part VII Short Term Financial Planning and Management Prepared by: Thomas J. Cottrell Modified by: Carlos Vecino HEC-Montreal
Chapter 18 Short-Term Finance and Planning
Chapter 19 Cash and Liquidity Management
Chapter 20 Credit and Inventory Management
FINANCIAL ANALYSIS AND FORECASTING (HEC-MONTREAL) Fundamentals of Corporate Finance 2002 McGraw-Hill Ryerson, Ltd Slide 1

2. Managers Who Deal with Short-Term Financial Problems (Table 18.1)
Duties related to short-term Title of manager financial management Assets/liabilities influenced
Cash manager Collection, concentration, disbursement; Cash, marketable short-term investments; short-term borrowing; securities, short-term loans banking relations
Credit manager Monitoring and control of accounts Accounts receivable receivable; credit policy decisions
Marketing manager Credit policy decisions Accounts receivable
Purchasing manager Decisions on purchases, suppliers; may Inventory, accounts payable negotiate payment terms
Production manager Setting of production schedules and Inventory, accounts payable materials requirements
Payables manager Decisions on payment policies and on Accounts payable whether to take discounts
Controller Accounting information on cash flows; Accounts receivable, reconciliation of accounts payable; application accounts payable of payments to accounts receivable
Source: Ned C. Hill and William L. Sartoris, Short-Term Financial Management, 2nd ed. (New York: Macmillan, 1992), p. 15.

3. Survey: The Importance of Short-Term Finance and Planning
Long-term investment decisions (capital budgeting) and long-term financing decisions are characterized by the facts that they (a) generally involve large amounts of money, and (b) are relatively infrequent occurrences.
Decisions that come under the heading “short-term finance” are equally important, because, while typical decisions often don’t involve as much money, decisions are much more frequent. This is suggested in the results of a recent survey of CFOs.
Ranked Greatest Average Time Activity Importance Allocated
Financial Planning % %
Working Capital Mgmt % %
Capital Budgeting % % Long-Term Financing % %
Total % %

4. Cash Flow Time Line (Figure 18.1) Operating and Cash cycles

5. Hermetic, Inc., Operating Cycle
The operating cycle
a) Finding the inventory period
COGS $480
Inventory turnover = = = times
Avg. inventory $352.5
365
Inventory period = = 268 days
1.362 times

6. Hermetic, Inc., Operating Cycle (concluded)
b) Finding the accounts receivable period
Credit sales $710
Receivables turnover = = = times
Avg. receivables $285
365
Receivables period = = 147 days
2.491 times
Operating cycle = Inventory period + Receivables period
= = 415 days

7. Hermetic, Inc., Cash Cycle
The cash cycle
a) Finding the payables turnover
COGS
Payables turnover =
Avg. payables
$480
= = times
$235
365
Payables period = = 179 days
2.043 times
Cash cycle = Operating cycle - Payables period = = 236 days

8. The Size of the Firm’s Investment in Current Assets
The size of the firm’s investment in current assets is determined by its short-term financial policies.
Flexible policy actions include:
Keeping large cash and securities balances
Keeping large amounts of inventory
Granting liberal credit terms
Restrictive policy actions include:
Keeping low cash and securities balances
Keeping small amounts of inventory
Allowing few or no credit sales
Is it better Flexible or Restrictive ?

9. Cost of holding current assets
Carrying cost (costs that rise with the amount held in assets)
Financial cost, storage cost and other costs of holding current assets.
Shortage cost (cost that decrease with the amount held in assets)
Cost of not having current assets available on-hand, or having to get them rapidly.
The optimal choice of holding current assets is a trade-off of:
Carrying costs versus Shortage costs:

10. Total Cost of holding current assets (Cash, receivables and inventory)
Total holding cost
Carrying cost
Shortage cost
Amount of assets

11. Carrying Costs and Shortage Costs (Figure 18.2)

12. Carrying Costs and Shortage Costs (Figure 18. 2)
Carrying Costs and Shortage Costs (Figure 18.2) When is a “Flexible policy” appropriate?

13. Carrying Costs and Shortage Costs (Figure 18
Carrying Costs and Shortage Costs (Figure 18.2) When is a “Restrictive policy” appropriate?

14. Financing Policy for an “Ideal” Economy (Figure 18.3)

15. Alternative Asset Financing Policies (Figure 18.5)

16. A Compromise Financing Policy (Figure 18.6)

17. A Closer look to Cash, Credit and Inventory
Cash policy
What is the tradeoff between carrying a large versus a small cash balance?
What is the proper management of the cash balance?
Credit policy
What is the tradeoff between a flexible versus a restrictive credit policy?
Analysis of a credit policy change
Credit information and evaluation of customer credit capacity
Inventory policy
What are the components of an inventory management system?
Use of EOQ inventory model
Inventory management systems

18. A Closer look to Cash, Credit and Inventory
Cash Policy
Credit Policy
Inventory Policy

19. Reasons for Holding Cash
Speculative Motive - the need to hold cash to take advantage of additional investment opportunities, such as bargain purchases.
Precautionary Motive - the need to hold cash as a safety margin to act as a financial reserve.
Transaction Motive - the need to hold cash to satisfy normal disbursement and collection activities associated with a firm’s ongoing operations.
Compensating Balance Requirements - cash balances kept at commercial banks to compensate for banking services the firm receives.

20. Determining the Target Cash Balance
Optimal choice of cash balance is a trade-off of
Carrying costs: Opportunity costs of holding cash instead of some other income-producing asset.
versus
Shortage costs: Cost of not having cash available on-hand,or having to rapidly get the cash.
Other factors influencing the target cash balance
Ability to borrow rather than marketable securities
Scale economies in cash management - large firm advantage.

21. Determining the Target Cash Balance (Figure 19.1)

22. Cash Balances - The Baumol-Allais-Tobin BAT Model
Starting (C)
Average (C/2)
Ending=0
Minimum cash allowed
Time in days, weeks, etc. 2 4

23. Cost minimization model
We seek to find the minimum cost of meeting the short-term cash needs
F = Fixed cost of selling securities to replenish cash
T = Total amount of new cash needed for transactions purposes over the relevant planning period (e.g. over a year)
R = Opportunity cost of holding cash (e.g. the interest rate on marketable securities)
Total Cost = Total Opportunity cost + Total Trading cost
Total Opportunity cost = (Average balance) (R) = (C/2)(R)
Total Trading cost = (T/C) (F)
Total Cost = (C/2)(R) + (T/C) (F)

24. Optimal Cash Balance, when dTC/dC = R/2 + (-1)TF/C2 = 0
Optimal Solution
Differentiate the Total Cost with respect to the cash balance to find the...
Optimal Cash Balance, when dTC/dC = R/2 + (-1)TF/C2 = 0

25. C = SQRT(2TF/R) = SQRT(2 * $36,500 * $10 / 0.05) = $3,821
Example 19A.1 (pp )
Vulcan corp. has outflows of $100 per day, seven days a week
R= 5%, F=$10 per transaction
C* = ? Total Cost = ?
T = Total Cash needed per year = 365 * $100 = $36,500
Optimal Balance (C*)
C = SQRT(2TF/R) = SQRT(2 * $36,500 * $10 / 0.05) = $3,821
Optimal Balance (C*) =$3,821
Average Cash Balance = $ 1,911
Total cost
Opportunity Costs = C/2*R= $1,911 (0.05) = $96
The re-supply time is $3,821/$100 per day = days
Number of re-supplies per year = 365 / = 9.6 times
Total Trading Costs = 9.6 ($10) = $96
Total Cost = Opportunity cost + Trading cost = $96 + $96
Total Cost = $192

26. Main source of cash : Sales and Cash Collections
The Cash Budget
Objective: Identification of short term financial needs, cash surpluses or deficits.
Main source of cash : Sales and Cash Collections
Other sources of cash: Asset sales, investment income, loans, increase in equity, etc.
Main Cash Outflows :
Payments of accounts payable
Wages, Utilities and other expenses
Taxes
Capital expenditures – Fixed assets acquisitions
Debt services and principal payments

27. Example: Cash Budget for Ajax Company
All sales on credit
Dec. sales were $95,000 ; Expected Jan 55,000 Feb & March 65,000
December 31 receivables were $135,000
Accounts receivable period is 45 days (50% - 30 days, 50% - 60 days)
Wages, taxes, and other expenses are 30% of sales
Raw materials are ordered two months in advance of sales
Raw materials are 50% of sales
All purchases on trade credit
An annual dividend of $100,000 is expected to be paid in March
No capital expenditures are planned for the first quarter
The beginning cash balance is $41,000
The minimum cash balance is $25,000

28. Example: Cash Budget for Ajax Company (continued)
Cash collections for Ajax (all figures rounded to the nearest dollar)
JAN FEB MAR
Beginning receivables $135,000 $102,500 $ 92,500
Sales 55,000 65,000 65,000
Cash collections 87,500 75,000 60,000
Ending receivables $102,500 $ 92,500 $ 97,500

29. Example: Cash Budget for Ajax Company (continued)
Cash disbursements for Ajax
JAN FEB MAR
Payment of accounts
(50% of next month’s sales) $ 32,500 $32,500 $30,000
Wages, taxes, and other 16,500 19,500 19,500
Capital expenditures 0 0 0
Long-term financing expenses ,000
Total $ 49,000 $52,000 $149,500

30. Example: Cash Budget for Ajax Company (continued)
Net cash inflow for Ajax
JAN FEB MAR
Total cash collections $ 87,500 $ 75,000 $ 60,000
Total cash disbursements 49,000 52, ,500
Net cash inflow $ 38,500 $23,000 -$ 89,500

31. Example: Cash Budget for Ajax Company (concluded)
Cash balance for Ajax
JAN FEB MAR
Beginning cash balance $ 41,000 $79,500 $102,500
Net cash inflow 38,500 23, ,500
Ending cash balance $ 79,500 $102,500 $ 13,000
Minimum cash balance - 25, , ,000
Cumulative surplus (deficit) $ 54,500 $ 77,500 -$ 12,000

32. A Closer look to Cash, Credit and Inventory
Credit Policy
Inventory Policy

33. Components of Credit Policy
Terms of sale
The conditions under which a firm sells its goods and services for cash or credit.
Credit analysis
The process of determining the probability that customers will not pay.
Collection policy
Procedures followed by a firm in collecting accounts receivable.

34. The Cash Flows from Granting Credit
Credit sale is made
Customer mails check
Firm deposits check in bank
Bank credits firm’s account
Time
Cash collection
Accounts receivable

35. Determinants of the Length of the Credit Period
Several factors influence the length of the credit cycle. Among these factors are:
Perishability and collateral value
Consumer demand for the product
Cost, profitability and standardization
Credit risk of the buyer
The size of the account
Competition in the product market
Customer type

36. The probability of nonpayment
Credit Policy Effects
Revenue effects
Payment is received later, but price and quantity sold may increase
Cost effects
Running a credit department and collecting receivables has costs
The cost of debt
The firm must finance receivables and, therefore, incur financing costs
The probability of nonpayment
The firm always gets paid if it sells for cash, but risks losses due to customer default if it sells on credit
The cash discount
Discounts induce buyers to pay early; the size of the discount affects payment patterns and amounts

37. Evaluating a Proposed Credit Policy
P = price per unit v = variable cost per unit Q = current quantity sold per period Q’ = new quantity expected to be sold R = periodic required return
The benefit of switching is the change in cash flow:
New cash flow - old cash flow
[(P - v)  Q’] - [(P - v)  Q]
rearranging,
(P - v)  (Q’ - Q)

38. Evaluating a Proposed Credit Policy (concluded)
The present value of switching is:
PV = [(P - v)  (Q’ - Q)]/R
The cost of switching is the amount uncollected for the period + the additional variable costs of production:
Cost = PQ + v(Q’ - Q)
And the NPV of the switch is:
NPV = -[PQ + v(Q’ - Q)] + [(P - v)(Q’ - Q)]/R

39. The Costs of Granting Credit (Figure 20.1)

40. The borrower’s willingness to pay Capacity
The Five C’s of Credit
Character
The borrower’s willingness to pay
Capacity
The borrower’s ability to pay
Capital
Financial reserves/borrowing capacity
Collateral
Pledged assets
Conditions
Relevant economic conditions

41. A Closer look to Cash, Credit and Inventory
Credit Policy
Inventory Policy

42. Inventory Types Inventory Costs Inventory Management Raw Materials
Work-in-Progress
Finished Goods
Inventory Costs
Storage and tracking costs
Insurance and taxes
Losses due to obsolescence, deterioration, or theft
Opportunity cost of capital on the invested amount

43. Costs of Holding Inventory (Figure 20.5)

44. Inventory Management Techniques
ABC Approach
Compare number of items with the value of the items
An illustration of the “80-20” rule
EOQ Model
Economic Order Quantity is most widely known approach.
Inventory depletion rate
Carrying costs
Shortage costs and Restocking costs
Total costs
Extensions to EOQ
Safety stocks
Reorder points
MRP - Material Requirements Planning
Just-in-Time Inventory

45. ABC Inventory Analysis (Figure 20.4)

46. Inventory Holdings for the Transcan Corporation (Figure 20.6 )
The Transcan Corporation starts with inventory of 3,600 units. The quantity drops to zero by the end of the fourth week. The average inventory is Q/2 = 3,600/2 = 1,800 over the period.

47. Cost minimization –The Economic Order Quantity EOQ model
We seek to find the minimum cost of holding inventory by defining what size order the firm should place when restocking.
Q = Quantity of restocking (size order)
F = Fixed cost per order
T = Total unit sales per year
CC = Carrying Cost of holding inventory (e.g. financial, storage, insurance, obsolescence, deterioration and theft costs)
Total Cost = Total Carrying cost + Total Restocking cost
Total Carrying cost = (Average stock) (CC) = (Q/2)(CC)
Total Restocking cost = (T/Q) (F)
Total Cost = (Q/2)(CC) + (T/Q) (F)

48. Optimal Solution
Differentiate the Total Cost with respect to the size order “Q” to find the...
Optimal size order “Q*”, when dTC/dQ = CC/2 + (-1)TF/Q2 = 0 CC TF Q 2 * =

49. Carrying costs = (_____/2)($40) = $_____
Solution to Problem 20.11
Bell Mfg. uses 1,600 switch assemblies per week and then reorders another 1,600. If the relevant carrying cost per assembly is $40, and the fixed order cost is $800, is Bell’s inventory policy optimal? Why or why not?
Carrying costs = (_____/2)($40) = $_____
Order costs = (52)($_____) = $_____
EOQ = [2(52)(1,600)($800)/$40]1/2 = _____ units
The firm’s policy (is/is not) optimal, since the costs are not equal.
Bell should _______ the order size and _______ the number of orders per year.

50. Carrying costs = (1,600/2)($40) = $32,000
Solution to Problem 20.11
Bell Mfg. uses 1,600 switch assemblies per week and then reorders another 1,600. If the relevant carrying cost per assembly is $40, and the fixed order cost is $800, is Bell’s inventory policy optimal? Why or why not?
Carrying costs = (1,600/2)($40) = $32,000
Order costs = (52)($800) = $41,600
EOQ = [2(52)(1,600)($800)/$40]1/2 = 1,825 units
The firm’s policy is not optimal, since the costs are not equal.
Bell should increase the order size and decrease the number of orders per year.

51. A. Safety Stocks Safety Stocks Inventory Minimum inventory level Time
Material Requirements Planning (MRP) - Safety Stocks and Reorder Points (Figure 20.7)
Inventory
A. Safety Stocks
Minimum inventory level
Safety Stocks
Time

52. B. Reorder points Delivery time Delivery time Inventory
Material Requirements Planning (MRP) - Safety Stocks and Reorder Points (Figure 20.7)
Inventory
B. Reorder points
Minimum inventory level
Delivery time
Delivery time
Time

53. B. Reorder points Delivery time Delivery time Safety Stocks Inventory
Material Requirements Planning (MRP) - Safety Stocks and Reorder Points (Figure 20.7)
Inventory
Delivery time
Delivery time
B. Reorder points
Minimum inventory level
Safety Stocks
Time

54. Just – in – Time Inventory
Basic Idea: Parts, Raw Material and in general “Work In Process components” are delivered exactly as needed for production
Objective: Minimize Inventory
Production Objective?
Is Just-in-time consistent with EOQ?
Financial Objective ?
How does JIT fits into Du-Pont?