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Abnormal Psychology in a Changing World Eighth Edition Jeffrey S. Nevid/Spencer A. Rathus/Beverly Greene
Chapter 1
Introduction and Methods of Research
Prepared by:
Ashlea R. Smith, PhD
Argosy University-Phoenix
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2. How do we define abnormal behavior?
Psychological disorder – Abnormal behavior pattern that involves a disturbance of psychological functioning or behavior.
Abnormal psychology – The branch of psychology that deals with the description, causes, and treatment of abnormal behavior patterns.
Medical model – A biological perspective in which abnormal behavior is viewed as symptomatic of underlying illness.
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3. Lifetime and Past-Year Prevalence of Psychological Disorders
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4. How do we define abnormal behavior?
Criteria for Determining Abnormality
1. Unusualness
2. Social deviance
3. Faulty perceptions or interpretations of reality
4. Significant personal distress
5. Maladaptive or self-defeating behavior
6. Dangerousness
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5. Cultural Bases of Abnormal Behavior
Behavior that is normal in one culture may be deemed abnormal in another.
The standards we use in making judgments of abnormal behavior must take into account cultural norms.
Traditional Native American cultures distinguish between illnesses that are believed to arise from influences outside the culture, called “White man’s sicknesses,” such as alcoholism and drug addiction, from those that emanate from a lack of harmony with traditional tribal life and thought, which are called “Indian sicknesses” (Trimble, 1991).
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6. Historical Perspectives on Abnormal Behavior
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7. The Demonological Model
Trephination – A harsh, prehistoric practice of cutting a hole in a person’s skull, possibly in an attempt to release demons.
The notion of supernatural causes of abnormal behavior, or demonology, was prominent in Western society until the Age of Enlightenment.
In ancient Greece, people who behaved abnormally were sent to temples dedicated to Aesculapius, the god of healing.
Incurables were driven from the temple by stoning.
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8. Origins of the Medical Model: In “Ill Humor”
Humors – According to the ancient Hippocratic belief system, the vital bodily fluids (phlegm, black bile, blood, yellow bile).
An imbalance of humors, he thought, accounted for abnormal behavior.
A lethargic or sluggish person was believed to have an excess of phlegm, from which we derive the word phlegmatic.
An overabundance of black bile was believed to cause depression, or melancholia.
An excess of blood created a sanguine disposition: cheerful, confident, and optimistic. An excess of yellow bile made people “bilious” and choleric—quick-tempered, that is.
Fluids=flu werd
Phlegm= flem=sikaap tenang
Bile= kemarahan
Lethargic=lesu=x bermaya
Overabundance=terlalu banyk
rasa sedih amat sangat n berpanjangan
Sanguine=optimis=fikir baik
Disposition=temperament=pembawaan=pembawaan sifat semula jadi
Bilious= cepat marah
Choleric=pemarah
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Medieval Times
Belief in supernatural causes led to beliefs that abnormal behaviors were a sign of possession by evil spirits or the devil.
This belief was part of the teachings of the Roman Catholic Church, the central institution in Western Europe after the decline of the Roman Empire.
The Church’s treatment of choice for possession was exorcism.
Possession=dirasuk=being under control of evil spirit.
exorcism=menghalau hantu
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Witchcraft
The late 15th – 17th centuries were times of massive persecutions, particularly for women accused of witchcraft.
Church officials believed the witched made pacts with the devil.
Diagnostic tests such as the water-float test were used to detect witchcraft.
Pacts=pakatan
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Asylums
By the late 15th and early 16th centuries, asylums, or madhouses, began to crop up throughout Europe.
Asylums often gave refuge to beggars as well as the mentally disturbed, and conditions were appalling.
At St. Mary’s of Bethlehem Hospital—from which the word bedlam is derived—the public could buy tickets to observe the antics of the inmates, much as we would pay to see a circus sideshow or animals at the zoo.
Asylums
Refuge=refuce=perlindungan
Appalling=mengerikan/dahsyat.
Antics= telatah
Inmates=penghuni
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12. The Reform Movement and Moral Therapy
Jean-Baptiste Pussin and Philippe Pinel in the late 18th and early 19th centuries argued that people who behave abnormally suffer from diseases and should be treated humanely.
Pinel (1745–1826) became medical director for the incurables’ ward at La Bicêtre in 1793 and continued the humane treatment Pussin had begun.
Dorothea Dix (1802–1887), a Boston schoolteacher, traveled about the country decrying the deplorable conditions in the jails and almshouses where mentally disturbed people were placed.
As a result of her efforts, 32 mental hospitals devoted to treating people with psychological disorders were established throughout the United States.
Decrying=mengutuk
Deplorable=amat dikesali
Almshouse=arm house=rumah kebajkan
Devoted=dikhaskan
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A Step Backward
In the latter half of the 19th century, the belief that abnormal behaviors could be successfully treated or cured by moral therapy fell into disfavor.
Deplorable hospital conditions remained commonplace through the middle of the 20th century.
By the mid-1950s, the population in mental hospitals had risen to half a million patients.
Disfavor=tidak disukai
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14. The Community Mental Health Movement: The Exodus from State Hospitals
Congress in 1963 established a nationwide system of community mental health centers (CMHCs, USDHHS, 1999a).
CMHCs were charged with providing continuing support and care to former hospital residents who were released from state mental hospitals under a policy of deinstitutionalization.
Phenothiazines reduced the need for indefinite hospital stays and permitted many people with schizophrenia to be discharged to halfway houses, group homes, and independent living.
The mental hospital population across the United States plummeted from 559,000 in 1955 to fewer than 100,000 by the 1990s (Grob, 2001).
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15. Contemporary Perspectives on Abnormal Behavior
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16. The Biological Perspective
Wilhelm Griesinger (1817–1868) argued that abnormal behavior was rooted in diseases of the brain.
Emil Kraepelin (1856–1926) likened mental disorders to physical diseases.
Griesinger and Kraepelin paved the way for the modern medical model, which attempts to explain abnormal behavior on the basis of underlying biological defects or abnormalities, not evil spirits.
Dementia praecox – The term given by Kraepelin to the disorder now called schizophrenia.
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17. The Biological Perspective
The medical model gained support in the late 19th century with the discovery that an advanced stage of syphilis—in which the bacterium that causes the disease directly invades the brain itself—led to a form of disturbed behavior called general paresis (from the Greek parienai, meaning “to relax”).
The later discovery of Alzheimer’s disease, a brain disease that is the major cause of dementia, lent further support to the medical model.
The medical model is a major advance over demonology.
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18. The Psychological Perspective
Jean-Martin Charcot (1825–1893) experimented with the use of hypnosis in treating hysteria, a condition characterized by paralysis or numbness that cannot be explained by any underlying physical cause.
Among those who attended Charcot’s demonstrations was a young Austrian physician named Sigmund Freud (1856–1939).
Psychodynamic model – The theoretical model of Freud and his followers, in which abnormal behavior is viewed as the product of clashing forces within the personality.
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19. The Sociocultural Perspective
Sociocultural theorists believe the causes of abnormal behavior may be found in the failures of society rather than in the person.
Accordingly, psychological problems may be rooted in the ills of society, such as unemployment, poverty, family breakdown, injustice, ignorance, and the lack of opportunity.
Sociocultural factors also focus on relationships between mental health and social factors such as gender, social class, ethnicity, and lifestyle.
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20. The Biopsychosocial Perspective
Many mental health professionals endorse the view that abnormal behavior is best understood by taking into account multiple causes representing the biological, psychological, and sociocultural domains.
Biopsychosocial model – An integrative model for explaining abnormal in terms of the interactions of biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors.
Perspectives on psychological disorders provide a framework not only for explanation but also for treatment.
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21. Research Methods in Abnormal Psychology
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Description, Explanation, Prediction, and Control: The Objectives of Science
Scientific method – A systematic method of conducting scientific research in which theories or assumptions are examined in the light of evidence.
Theory – A formulation of the relationships underlying observed events.
Within this context, controlling behavior means using scientific knowledge to help people shape their own goals and more efficiently use their resources to accomplish them.
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The Scientific Method
Formulating a research question.
Framing the research question in the form of a hypothesis.
Testing the hypothesis.
Drawing conclusions about the hypothesis.
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Ethics in Research
Institutions such as universities and hospitals have review committees, called institutional review boards (IRBs), that review proposed research studies in the light of ethical guidelines.
Informed consent – The principle that subjects should receive enough information about an experiment beforehand to decide freely whether to participate.
Confidentiality – Protection of the identity of participants by keeping records secure and not disclosing their identities.
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25. Naturalistic Observation
Naturalistic observation – A form of research in which behavior is observed and measured in its natural environment.
Naturalistic observation provides information on how subjects behave, but it does not reveal why they do so.
Questions of cause and effect are best approached by means of controlled experiments.
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26. The Correlational Method
Correlational method – A scientific method of study that examines the relationships between factors or variables expressed in statistical terms.
Correlation coefficient – A statistical measure of the strength of the relationship between two variables expressed along a continuum that varies between −1.00 and
The longitudinal study is a type of correlational study in which individuals are periodically tested or evaluated over lengthy periods of time, perhaps for decades.
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27. The Experimental Method
Experimental method – A scientific method that aims to discover cause-and-effect relationships by manipulating independent variables and observing the effects on the dependent variables.
Independent variables – Factors that are manipulated in experiments.
Dependent variables – Factors that are observed in order to determine the effects of manipulating the independent variable.
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Examples of Independent and Dependent Variables in Experimental Research
You may want to do a refresher on both of these concepts before you even begin on the slide material. For example with Freud, ask students if they recall what the unconscious is from Introduction to Psychology 101. Second, ask students what key factors are associated with Freud (i.e. ID, Superego, Ego), to get a baseline exactly how much they remember from Introduction to Psychology 101. Next, regarding the parental influence and sexual urges discuss the concept of the Oedipus and Electra Complexes, as well as discuss how even currently professionals, and the public tend to blame “the parents” for shortcomings, behaviors, mental illness, etc. In addition, Freud also felt if you engaged in masturbatory behaviors you were more likely to become “mentally ill”. You do not need to go into detail regarding these terms because they are discussed later in the chapter when you get to the current views of abnormal behavior with the psychological models.
With Pavlov and Watson as a refresher from Introduction to Psychology you may want to start with a question such as, “What is Ivan Pavlov known for in the field of psychology (i.e. the experiment with the dogs, food, and bell)?” and then you would ask the same question regarding Watson. “What did John B. Watson contribute to the field of psychology?” This again allows you as the professor to gain some information on how much they recall from the Introductory course when you begin lecturing on the different psychological models of abnormal behavior and treatment.
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29. The Experimental Method
Experimental group – In an experiment, a group that receives the experimental treatment.
Control group – In an experiment, a group that does not receive the experimental treatment.
Random assignment – A method of assigning research subjects at random to experimental or control groups to balance these groups on the characteristics of people that comprise them.
Selection factor – A type of bias in which differences between experimental and control groups result from differences in the type of participants in the groups, not from the independent variable.
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30. The Experimental Method
Blind – A state of being unaware of whether one has received an experimental treatment.
Placebo – An inert medication or bogus treatment that is intended to control for expectancy effects.
In a single-blind placebo-control study, subjects are randomly assigned to treatment conditions in which they receive either an active drug (experimental condition) or an inert placebo (placebo-control condition), but are kept blind, or uninformed, about which drug they receive.
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31. The Experimental Method
Internal validity – The degree to which manipulation of the independent variables can be causally related to changes in the dependent variables.
External validity – The degree to which experimental results can be generalized to other settings and conditions.
Construct validity – The degree to which treatment effects can be accounted for by the theoretical mechanisms (constructs) represented in the independent variables.
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32. Epidemiological Studies
Epidemiological studies – Research studies that track rates of occurrence of particular disorders among different population groups.
Survey method – A research method in which large samples of people are questioned by means of a survey instrument.
Incidence – The number of new cases of a disorder that occurs within a specific period of time.
Prevalence – The overall number of cases of a disorder in a population within a specific period of time.
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33. Epidemiological Studies
Researchers must take steps when constructing a sample to ensure that it represents the target population.
Random sample – A sample that is drawn in such a way that every member of a population has an equal chance of being included.
By contrast, random assignment refers to the process by which members of a research sample are assigned at random to different experimental conditions or treatments.
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Kinship Studies
Genotype – The set of traits specified by an individual’s genetic code.
Phenotype – An individual’s actual or expressed traits.
Proband – The case first diagnosed with a given disorder.
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Kinship Studies
Identical, or MZ, twins are important in the study of the relative influences of heredity and environment because differences between MZ twins are the result of environmental rather than genetic influences.
In twin studies, researchers identify individuals with a specific disorder who are members of MZ or DZ twin pairs and then study the other twins in the pairs.
Adoptee studies – Studies that compare the traits and behavior patterns of adopted children to those of their biological parents and their adoptive parents.
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Case Studies
Case study – A carefully drawn biography based on clinical interviews, observations, and psychological tests.
Single-case experimental design – A type of case study in which the subject is used as his or her own control.
Reversal design – An experimental design that consists of repeated measurement of a subject’s behavior through a sequence of alternating baseline and treatment phases.
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37. A-B-A-B Reversal Design
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38. Azrin and Peterson Study
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Critical Thinking
Critical thinking – Adoption of a questioning attitude and careful scrutiny of claims and arguments in the light of evidence.
Some key features of critical thinking:
Maintain a skeptical attitude.
Consider the definitions of terms.
Weigh the assumptions or premises on which arguments are based.
Bear in mind that correlation is not causation.
Consider the kinds of evidence on which conclusions are based.
Do not oversimplify.
Do not overgeneralize.
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The End
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