1. Ethnographic fieldwork ARCT 720 Research process in architecture Semester 1/2008 Rawiwan Oranratmanee Faculty of Architecture Chiang Mai University

2. What is Ethnography? In Greek ‘Ethnos’ means people, race, culture, class, nation; ‘Graphoein’ means writing In Greek ‘Ethnos’ means people, race, culture, class, nation; ‘Graphoein’ means writing As a research, it refers to a fieldwork-based method for a descriptive study of human societies’ As a research, it refers to a fieldwork-based method for a descriptive study of human societies’ Originally used in social and cultural anthropology Originally used in social and cultural anthropology Widely promoted by Chicago School of Sociology on urban life and been used in nearly all fields of studies Widely promoted by Chicago School of Sociology on urban life and been used in nearly all fields of studies

3. Some ideas about Ethnography Involve the researcher immersing themselves in the lives and situation of the people and institutions being studied for an extended period of time Involve the researcher immersing themselves in the lives and situation of the people and institutions being studied for an extended period of time Develop an understanding and write up a detailed account of that setting Develop an understanding and write up a detailed account of that setting Participant observation Participant observation - From Bryman (2001) Makes regular observations on the behavior of members of that setting Makes regular observations on the behavior of members of that setting Listens to and engages in conversation Listens to and engages in conversation Interviews on unobservable issues Interviews on unobservable issues Collect documents about the group Collect documents about the group

4. Issues Relating to issues in qualitative research including Ethics i.e. covert Ethics i.e. covert Researcher role as a stranger Researcher role as a stranger Relationship between researcher and participants Relationship between researcher and participants Control of process Control of process Quality, validity, representation Quality, validity, representation Is it a research and just a report ? Is it a research and just a report ?

5. Examples of research Particular: Balinese cockfight Particular: Balinese cockfight Street: Street corner society Street: Street corner society Belief: Shamanism Belief: Shamanism Tribes: Palaung of Shan state Tribes: Palaung of Shan state Group: Working class youth Group: Working class youth Social issue: Homeless Social issue: Homeless Marketing: Consumer behavior Marketing: Consumer behavior New product development New product development Business: Organizational values Business: Organizational values Education: Classroom study Education: Classroom study Politics: War victims Politics: War victims Planning: Space use and behaviour Planning: Space use and behaviour Family: Roles, ages, gender Family: Roles, ages, gender

6. Why use Ethnography? Ontological calls: see actions, behaviors, interactions -> need to see occurrences in their settings Ontological calls: see actions, behaviors, interactions -> need to see occurrences in their settings Epistemological calls: needs knowledge by participation in natural settings Epistemological calls: needs knowledge by participation in natural settings Seek social explanation for hidden issues Seek social explanation for hidden issues See researcher as active and reflexive: Skills See researcher as active and reflexive: Skills Can’t get data from any other way Can’t get data from any other way More ethical to enter into the unknown world More ethical to enter into the unknown world

7. Doing Ethnography Some techniques are: Direct, first-hand observation of daily behavior -> participant observation Direct, first-hand observation of daily behavior -> participant observation Conversation: from small talks to interviews Conversation: from small talks to interviews Genealogical: a set of procedures studying kinship and marriage using diagrams and symbols Genealogical: a set of procedures studying kinship and marriage using diagrams and symbols Detailed work with key persons/senior/gatekeepers Detailed work with key persons/senior/gatekeepers Discovery of local beliefs and perceptions Discovery of local beliefs and perceptions Problem-oriented Problem-oriented Longitudinal research Longitudinal research Team research Team research Case studies Case studies Hanging around Hanging around Snowball -> one to another Snowball -> one to another Provide incentives Provide incentives Use friends and contacts Use friends and contacts Descriptive to focus Descriptive to focus

8. Foreshadowed questions Start with some initial focus and plan Start with some initial focus and plan Inductive approach usual Inductive approach usual Can start from the site, from a concern with groups marginal to society, from a number of questions Can start from the site, from a concern with groups marginal to society, from a number of questions Important thing is to ‘pose questions that illuminate some larger theoretical and social concerns and to craft research problems that are theoretically central and empirically focus’ – Gerson and Horowitz (2002) Important thing is to ‘pose questions that illuminate some larger theoretical and social concerns and to craft research problems that are theoretically central and empirically focus’ – Gerson and Horowitz (2002)

9. Some considerations Open or closed communities? Open or closed communities? Open i.e. communities, groups, gangs, streets Open i.e. communities, groups, gangs, streets Closed: Institutions i.e. hospitals, flats, schools, hospitals, homes Closed: Institutions i.e. hospitals, flats, schools, hospitals, homes How to access the site? i.e float around, stay inside, get help, negotiate, honesty, build relationships How to access the site? i.e float around, stay inside, get help, negotiate, honesty, build relationships When will be the time? When will be the time? Common ->specific Common ->specific How long How long How much involved? How much involved?

10. Role of researcher The researcher is in a ‘natural setting’ doing something ‘un- natural’ The researcher is in a ‘natural setting’ doing something ‘un- natural’ How can a setting be natural if there is a researcher there affecting the situation? How can a setting be natural if there is a researcher there affecting the situation? Front management Front management Covert or overt role? Covert or overt role? Can’t be clear cut? Can’t be clear cut? Need different roles for different groups Need different roles for different groups Need to work on these roles and constantly negotiate them Need to work on these roles and constantly negotiate them

11. Typologies of Role Complete participant: being a member of the social setting, likely to be covert Complete participant: being a member of the social setting, likely to be covert Participant as observer: same but members of the groups are aware that the person is undertaking research Participant as observer: same but members of the groups are aware that the person is undertaking research Observer as participant: often a role restricted to interviewing Observer as participant: often a role restricted to interviewing Complete observer – no interaction with the subject Complete observer – no interaction with the subject Some said the above can be modified as Total participant, researcher- participant, total researcher Total participant, researcher- participant, total researcher

12. Issues when doing Ethnography What are implication of roles, front management and relationships What are implication of roles, front management and relationships Can a researcher be ‘invisible’? Can a researcher be ‘invisible’? Active or Passive? Active or Passive? Personal danger i.e gangs or drug cultures Personal danger i.e gangs or drug cultures Can or should a researcher be one of them? Can or should a researcher be one of them? The dangers of ‘going native’ The dangers of ‘going native’ The dual role of insider/outsider is crucial to success The dual role of insider/outsider is crucial to success Bonds between researchers and participants Bonds between researchers and participants

13. What to look for? Representation of events and people Representation of events and people How to ‘hang out’ effectively How to ‘hang out’ effectively Data, interviewees, contacts Data, interviewees, contacts Informality Informality Prepare for snowballs and supporting theories Prepare for snowballs and supporting theories Saturation -> when is it done? Saturation -> when is it done? Answers to key questions Answers to key questions Process from shallow to deep, from seen to unseen Process from shallow to deep, from seen to unseen Look/ask for explanation and clarification Look/ask for explanation and clarification Indirect enquiries for worldviews and beliefs Indirect enquiries for worldviews and beliefs

14. Taking notes What and when to record is crucial for ethnographer because role of researcher is not made obvious What and when to record is crucial for ethnographer because role of researcher is not made obvious The problem is memory The problem is memory Don’t wait too long to note down -> The morning after is the latest Don’t wait too long to note down -> The morning after is the latest Note it in details -> events, behavior and researcher’s reflection on them Note it in details -> events, behavior and researcher’s reflection on them

15. Some guidelines in note-making (1) Learn to make mental notes Learn to make mental notes Write down key words/phrases at the time Write down key words/phrases at the time Write up full notes ASAP after the event including Write up full notes ASAP after the event including Event, people, conversation Event, people, conversation Don’t try to abstract your notes; this is for later Don’t try to abstract your notes; this is for later Learn how to find time/privacy to take note Learn how to find time/privacy to take note If time allows, code your notes on- site to find what to ask further, links between data, concepts to be defined or confirmed If time allows, code your notes on- site to find what to ask further, links between data, concepts to be defined or confirmed Use some secret codes for sensitive issues Use some secret codes for sensitive issues

16. Some guidelines in note-making (2) Record personal impression, feelings, reaction-> can be useful for discourse analysis Record personal impression, feelings, reaction-> can be useful for discourse analysis Any doubt, write it down Any doubt, write it down Any comments on data, keep them separate from data Any comments on data, keep them separate from data Identify quotations in the notes; any important quotes relating to key questions, remain their originality -> useful for narrative analysis Identify quotations in the notes; any important quotes relating to key questions, remain their originality -> useful for narrative analysis

17. When to leave the field? Reach a deadline Reach a deadline A supervisor says so A supervisor says so A sense that enough information has been generated -> gain answers for key questions with enough explanation A sense that enough information has been generated -> gain answers for key questions with enough explanation The research becomes too stressful The research becomes too stressful The position of the researcher has become untenable The position of the researcher has become untenable With good relationship, leaving can be difficult With good relationship, leaving can be difficult

18. Quality and validation (1) Position of first hand accounts Position of first hand accounts The researcher learns and is able to explain fruitfully the rules and norms of the group -> member validation The researcher learns and is able to explain fruitfully the rules and norms of the group -> member validation Grounded theory, analytic deduction -. Work more from raw data to find theoretical contribution Grounded theory, analytic deduction -. Work more from raw data to find theoretical contribution

19. Quality and validation (2) External validity and reflexivity according to role and method set forth External validity and reflexivity according to role and method set forth Internal validity – audit trail, accuracy of notes and quality of field notes Internal validity – audit trail, accuracy of notes and quality of field notes Some evidences other than notes i.e. photos and images Some evidences other than notes i.e. photos and images

20. Subjective adequacy Time in field Time in field Place, closeness to participants/situation Place, closeness to participants/situation Evidences Evidences Saturation -> no new data emerged Saturation -> no new data emerged

21. Ethics Classic: The researcher being too kind (Deceptive), too friendly (avoid dislike), dishonest (conceal their goals) Classic: The researcher being too kind (Deceptive), too friendly (avoid dislike), dishonest (conceal their goals) Use techniques: Precise, Observant, unobtrusive Use techniques: Precise, Observant, unobtrusive Ethnographic self Ethnographic self Manipulation and false Manipulation and false Opposite plagiarism Opposite plagiarism Prefabricate findings Prefabricate findings

22. Concluding thoughts Share some characteristics to qualitative research Share some characteristics to qualitative research Ethnography entails participant observation but in a wider views including more methods Ethnography entails participant observation but in a wider views including more methods It is more active than observing It is more active than observing It leads to the end results, ethnographic monograph It leads to the end results, ethnographic monograph Some emphasizes the lengthy period of time but not always a case Some emphasizes the lengthy period of time but not always a case

24. References Agar, M (1996) The professional stranger Agar, M (1996) The professional stranger Brownill S (2005) Qualitative data generation, ethnography and participant observation Brownill S (2005) Qualitative data generation, ethnography and participant observation Bryman A (2001) Social research methods Bryman A (2001) Social research methods Fielding N (2001) Researching social life Fielding N (2001) Researching social life Hammersely M and Atkinson P (1995) Ethnography, Principles in Practice Hammersely M and Atkinson P (1995) Ethnography, Principles in Practice