1. Stellar Evolution Life of a Star

2. H-R Diagram Named after Ejnar Hertzsprung and Henry Norris Russell – Independently founded he use of such plots in the 1920s Graphs temperature and luminosity of stars – Luminosity: the amount of radiation leaving a star in a given amount of time

3. H-R Diagram Continues The main sequence – Diagonal line – Highest temperature and luminosity top left and lowest to the bottom right – Temperatures range from 3000 K (spectral class M) to 30,000 K (spectral class O). – The bottom right are 1/10 of the Sun and top left are 10 times the size of the Sun Mass of the fragment determines: – where they will end up on the diagram – How long it will take to get to the main sequence Low mass = a long time (billions of years) – Nuclear fusion is slower High mass = short time (millions of years) – Nuclear fusion is rapid

4. Important thing to remember Heat/pressure and Gravity – The interstellar medium is balanced when heat/pressure (outward force) equals gravity (inward force) – when they are unbalanced the star tries to rebalance and changes happen in luminosity, density, temperature, size, position on the H-R Diagram, etc…

5. Star’s Life Similar to our Sun

6. Stage 1 Starts out as a dense cloud of cool gas and dust – Emission nebulae 1000s time more mass than the Sun Temperature 10 K

7. Stage 1 Continue Part of the interstellar medium (dust and gas) collapses under its own weight and breaks into fragments – This happens many times before gravity wins over the heat/pressure force – Produces a few dozen massive stars or collection of 100s of stars similar or smaller in size than our Sun – Fragments don’t happen naturally, but some outside force cause them Shockwave from forming stars or an exploding star Fragments continues to contract until radiation can’t escape – Cause temperature and pressure to increase – Cause the fragmentation to stop

8. Stage 2 Several 10s of thousands of years after, the fragment has shrunk to a gaseous sphere with a diameter roughly the size of our solar system

9. Stage 3 Fragment resemble a star Dense region is called a protostar At the end of stage 3 a photosphere appears, the surface

10. Stage 4 Protostar is contracting Both in the core and in the photosphere the temperature and density are increasing Electrons and protons are ripped from atoms Core temperature: 1,000,000 K Size: Mercury’s orbit Luminosity: 1,000 times more than the Sun projectcollision.com

11. Stage 5 Contraction slows down as heat from the core gradually comes to the cooler surface Violent surface activity Core Temperature: 5,000,000 K Surface Temperature: 4,000 K Size: 10 times the size of the Sun Luminosity: 10 times more than the Sun

12. Stage 6 Surface Temperature: 4500 K Core Temperature: 10,000,000K – Hot enough to start nuclear fusion – Protons begin to fuse into helium nuclei Star is born

13. Stage 7 Next 30 million years the star contracts a little more and its density increase Star moves onto the Main Sequence Pressure and gravity are now balanced Core Temperature: 15,000,000 K Surface Temperature: similar to the Sun Takes 40 – 50 million years to form ( stages 1-7) and will remain pretty much unchanged in temperature and luminosity for the next billion years

14. “Failed Stars” gravity and heat/pressure come into equilibrium before nuclear fusion can happen, thus they become cold fragments or unburned matter

15. Stage 8 As hydrogen is consumed the balance is changed between gravity and pressure – Internal structure and its outward appearance begins to change – Star leaves the main sequence – Mass of the star determine how it will die Low = gentle death High = catastrophic Core temperature are two low for helium to fuse Hydrogen is gone in the core Nuclear fusion moves outward leaving a non-fusing helium core

16. Stage 8 Continues With out the core fusion gravity takes over and begins to contract the core. – Important to note fusion is still happening in the outer layers Outer shell increase in size due to the hydrogen fusion – Hydrogen fusion is happening very rapidly Luminosity: increases Radius: 3 times that of the Sun On its way to becoming a red giant – 100 million year process

17. outreach.atnf.csiro.au

18. Stage 9 Luminosity: 100 times more than the Sun Radii: the size of Mercury’s orbit Core: – 1/1000 of the entire star or a few times larger than Earth – Very dense

19. Stage 10 Nuclear Fusion begins again – Helium into Carbon Temperature: 10 8 K Helium Flash – A sudden rise in temperature which cause the core to expand rapidly – Cause the star to move off the red giant onto the horizontal branch Eventually balance is reached between gravity and pressure Luminosity: same

20. Stage 11 Few 10s of millions years Core: – Carbon – Contracting further – No more fusion Outer Shell – Helium and hydrogen are fuses quickly – Expanding Red giant for a second time Luminosity and radius has increased cse.ssl.berkeley.edu

21. Stage 12 Carbon core is dead and outer Hydrogen and Helium shells are fusing at a high rate Radiation pressure from within the star drives away the outer layers – Slow at first then more rapidly as the luminosity increases – Less then a million years Next the star is made of two parts: – hot and luminous core – the cold dust cloud planetary nebula Moving left on the H-R diagram Central star cools and fades

22. Stage 12 Continue During the final stages of the red giant’s life nuclear reactions between carbon and unburned helium in the core creates oxygen, and in some cases even heavier elements, such as neon and magnesium “The evolution of low-mass stars is the source of virtually all of the carbon-rich dust observed throughout the plane of our galaxy” (McMillan 326). Core finally stops contracting

23. Stage 13 (white Dwarf) The carbon core is visible as a white dwarf Size of the Earth Mass is ½ that of the Sun WhiteDwarf.gif white_dwarf.jpg

24. Stage 13 Continues Novae (plural) Possible route for a white dwarf – Last three days – Can see 2 to 3 each year – Process Happens when a white dwarf undergoes a violent explosion on its surface. This results in a rapid temperature and luminosity increase. White dwarf pulls matter (hydrogen and helium) away from a near by star because of its gravity The matter starts to orbit around the white dwarf forming an accretion disk It builds up rapidly increasing in temperature, density, and luminosity until it begins to fuse Hydrogen into helium Fades as soon as the Hydrogen is used up Then the process can happen again once things have returned to normal.

25. Nova chandra.harvard.edu gemini.edu hea-www.harvard.edu

26. Stage 14 Continues to cool until it becomes a black dwarf – Cold, dense, burned-out ember in space – Temperature almost drops to absolute zero

27. Evolution of Massive Stars Follow similar path as the Sun like stars

28. Differences  Luminosity stays about the same through the life of a massive star.  No helium flash  Core temperature are high enough to fuse helium into carbon and then carbon into oxygen o Very high mass stars can fuse: hydrogen, helium, carbon, oxygen, neon, magnesium, silicon, etc…  Doesn’t reach red giant before helium fusion begins  They finally move off the main sequence to form red supergiant o At the end of the supergiant phase they form an iron core e-education.psu.edu

29. End of the road Element formationTime Hydrogen:10 million years Helium1 million years Carbon1,000 years Oxygen1 year SiliconA week IronLess then a day  Each nuclear reaction increases with speed  Core changes into iron

30. Super Nova Fusion involving iron doesn’t produce energy because their nuclei are so tight that energy can’t get out, thus fusion stops and the equilibrium is gone. Gravity overwhelms pressure and the star implodes (falls in on itself) – Super Nova If they don’t super nova then they become neon- oxygen white dwarfs

31. Super Nova What is happening in the core Iron atoms breaking down into protons, electrons, neutrons, and photons Lot of energy is produced The core is getting smaller causing the proton and electrons to crush together to form neutrons and neutrinos Eventually stops contracting because the neutrons prevent it – Then it over corrects and expands rapidly sending out a shock wave Only takes a few seconds for this process to happen The shock wave blast the outer layers including the heavy elements outside the iron core into space

32. Super Nova science.nasa.gov astrophysics.gsfc.nasa.gov 500 × 333 - Image of remnant from the type Ia Tycho supernova: X-ray: NASA/CXC/SAO,...

33. Heavier Elements than Iron Formation “Low-mass stars are responsible for most of the carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen that make life on Earth possible. High-mass stars produced the iron and silicon that make up Earth itself, as well as the heavier elements on which much of our technology is based” (McMillan 341). – low massive stars at the end of their red giant phase the second time around – super nova, where neutrons and protons are ripped apart and crammed into other nuclei

34. Heavier Elements than Iron Formation Continue As these heavier elements are mixed into the stellar medium, new star formation contain more heavy elements then older stars Galaxies continuously recycle their matter “Without the heavy elements synthesized in the hearts of stars, life on Earth would not exist” (McMillan 341).