1. Chapter 9 Learning

2. Section 1 – Classical Conditioning
Describe the principles of classical conditioning
Outline the techniques of classical conditioning.

3. Learning:
Can be defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior that results from experience
Three basic types of learning;
classical conditioning
operant condition
modeling

4. Classical Conditioning
Controlling an animal or person’s responses in a way so that an old response becomes attached to new stimulus

5. Classical Conditioning
Neutral Stimulus:
one that has nothing to do with the response prior to conditioning
Un-conditioned Stimulus (UCS)
an event that leads to a certain predictable response without previous training (ex. Food normally causes salivation)

6. Cont. Un-conditioned response (UCR) Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
a reaction that occurs naturally and automatically when the UCS is presented
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
A stimuli you are taught to respond to
Conditioned response (CR)
a response that is learned

7. Pavlov’s Experiment Before Conditioning
Neutral Stimulus (NS)
No Response
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
Unconditioned Response (UCR)

8. Pavlov’s Experiment During Conditioning
Neutral Stimulus + Unconditioned Stimulus --- Unconditioned Response

9. Pavlov’s Experiment After Conditioning
Conditioned Stimulus ( CS) = Conditioned Response (CR)

10. General Principles of Classical Conditioning
Acquisition:
Generally occurs gradually
With each pairing of the CS and the UCS, the CR is strengthened.
The timing of the CS and the UCS also affects learning
Generalization
Occurs when an animal responds to a second stimulus similar to the original CS without prior training to the second stimulus.
Discrimination
The ability to respond differently to different stimuli.
Extinction
A classically conditioned response can be distinguish (ended)

11. Classical Conditioning and Human Behavior
John B. Watson and Rosalie Raynor (1920) experimented with Little Albert (page 249 of textbook)
O. Hobart and Mollie Mower (1938) developed a practical solution to the problem of bed-wetting using classical conditioning.

12. Classical Conditioning
Did you know?
Have you ever noticed how movie directors use music in their movies? Did you ever hear a song and then think about either the movie it was from or the person you were with when you saw the movie? If so, you experienced classical conditioning. The music has become a signal that triggers memories and emotions.

13. Section 2- Operant Conditioning
Outline the principles of operant conditioning
Describe the applications of operant conditioning

14. Operant Conditioning

15. Operant Conditioning Learning from the consequences of behavior
In operant conditioning, the subject must engage in a behavior in order for the programmed outcome to occur

16. Operant Conditioning
B. F. Skinner is most closely associated with operant conditioning
believes that most behaviors are influenced by one’s history of rewards and punishments
Reinforcement: a stimulus or event that affects the likelihood that an immediately preceding behavior will be repeated.

17. Reinforcement
A stimulus or event that increases the likelihood that behavior will be repeated
Examples of reinforcers that people usually respond to are social approval, money and extra privileges.

18. Primary and Secondary Reinforcers
A primary reinforcer is one that satisfies a biological need such as hunger, thirst or sleep.
A secondary reinforcer is one that has been paired with a primary reinforcer and through classical conditioning has acquired value and reinforcement

19. Schedules of Reinforcement
One important factor in operant conditioning is the timing and frequency of reinforcement
Continuous Schedule: reinforced every time
Partial Schedule: reinforcement occurs intermittently
Within partial schedule there are four basic schedules where people respond differently to each
Fixed-ratio schedule: reinforcement depends on a specified quantity of responses (ex: every 4th response)
variable-ration schedule: the number of responses needed for a reinforcement changes from one time to the next (ex: slot machine)
fixed-interval schedule: the time interval is always the same: (second, minutes, days)
variable-interval schedule: the time at which the reinforcement becomes available changes throughout the conditioning procedure

20. Shaping and Chaining
Shaping is a process in which reinforcement is used to sculpt new responses out of old ones.
In order to learn a new skill, a person must be able to put together responses.
Responses that follow one another in a sequence are called response chains.

21. Aversive Control
Reinforcement refers to anything that increases the frequency of an immediately preceding behavior.
Aversive, or unpleasant stimuli, influence our everyday behavior
Aversive control refers to this type of conditioning or learning.

22. Aversive Control Negative Reinforcement
In negative reinforcement, a negative or unpleasant stimulus is removed.
This removal increases the frequency of behavior
It negates, (takes away) and aversive stimuli
Two types of negative reinforcement is escape conditioning and avoidance conditioning.
Escape conditioning – a person’s behavior causes an unpleasant event to stop.
Avoidance conditioning – the person’s behavior has the effect of preventing an unpleasant situation from happening.

23. Factors that Affect Learning
Feedback: finding out the results of an action or performance
w/o feedback, you may repeat the same mistakes
Transfer: skills you already have that can be used for another skill
positive transfer: when a previously learned response helps you learn to master a new task
negative transfer: when a previously learned task hinders learning (ex: driving in England)

24. Factors that affect learning (cont)
Practice: the repetition of a task
helps to bind responses together
makes for smooth and fluent movement from response to response
psychologists have been interested in determining how to use time most efficiently and have found that it is usually better to practice over a period of time instead of all at once
imagining oneself performing the skill is called “mental practice”

25. Operant Conditioning

26. Section 3 – Social Learning
Objectives:
Cite the principles involved in cognitive learning and modeling.
Identify the principles of learning used in behavior modification.

27. Cognitive Learning

28. Learning to Learn
Harry Harlow showed that animals can learn to learn- they can learn to use strategies for solving similar problems
page 38 read
Martin Seligman: Learned Helplessness
Pg 39 read

29. Modeling Learning by imitation Three different types of effects
the behaviors of others simply increases the chances that we will do the same
observational learning, or simply imitation; observer watches someone perform a behavior and is later able to reproduce it closely
dis-inhibition: when an observer watches someone else engage in threatening activity without being punished, the observer may find it easier to engage in that behavior

30. Modeling

31. Behavior Modification

32. Behavior Modification