1. Wireless Networks Instructor: Fatima Naseem Lecture # 03 Computer Engineering Department, University of Engineering and Technology, Taxila

2. Signal Encoding Techniques Chapter 6

3. Digital Signaling Data source g(t), which may be digital or analog, is encoded as a digital signal, x(t) Form of x(t) depends on encoding technique that is chosen to optimize the use of transmission medium Eg. It might be chosen to conserve the bandwidth or minimize errors

5. Analog Signaling Carrier signal: a continuous constant frequency signal The frequency of the carrier signal is chosen to be compatible with transmission medium Data transmitted using carrier signal by modulation Modulation: process of encoding source data onto a carrier signal with frequency fc Involve operation on one of the following three parameters; frequency, amplitude, phase

6. Analog Signaling Modulating signal: Input signal m(t) May be analog or digital Modulated signal: Resulting signal s(t) s(t) bandlimited signal BW on spectrum related to fc, often centered at fc encoding technique is chosen to optimize some characteristic of transmission

7. Reasons for Choosing Encoding Techniques Digital data, digital signal Equipment less complex and less expensive than digital-to-analog modulation equipment Analog data, digital signal Permits use of modern digital transmission and switching equipment Common to digitize voice signals prior to transmission to improve quality For wireless transmission the resulting digital data must be modulated onto an analog carrier

8. Reasons for Choosing Encoding Techniques Digital data, analog signal Some transmission media will only propagate analog signals E.g., optical fiber and unguided media Analog data, analog signal Analog data in electrical form can be transmitted easily and cheaply Done with voice transmission over voice-grade lines Must be modulated on a higher frequency carrier

9. Signal Encoding Criteria Some important terms: Digital signal  sequence of discrete, discontinuous voltage pulses Each pulse is a signal element Binary data are transmitted by encoding each data bit into signal element A digital bit stream can be encoded onto an analog signal as a sequence of signal elements, with each signal element being a pulse of constant freq, amp, phase There might be one-to-one, one to many or many to one correspondence

10. Signal Encoding Criteria Data signaling rate/data rate: bits per second data is transmitted Duration/length of a bit: amount of time taken by the transmitter to emit a bit; for data rate R, bit duration is 1/R Modulation rate: rate at which signal level is changed Expressed in baud/ signal elements per second Depends on nature of encoding technique

11. Signal Encoding Criteria Tasks involved in interpreting digital signals at receiver: Receiver must know timing of each bit i.e. when it starts and when it ends Receiver must know whether the signal level for each bit position is high or low For these tasks the sampling of each bit position is done in the middle of interval.

12. Signal Encoding Criteria What determines how successful a receiver will be in interpreting an incoming signal? Signal-to-noise ratio Data rate Bandwidth An increase in data rate increases bit error rate An increase in SNR decreases bit error rate An increase in bandwidth allows an increase in data rate

13. Factors Used to Compare Encoding Schemes Signal spectrum With lack of high-frequency components, less bandwidth required Transfer function of a channel is worse near band edges Clocking Ease of determining beginning and end of each bit position

14. Factors Used to Compare Encoding Schemes Signal interference and noise immunity Performance in the presence of noise Cost and complexity The higher the signal rate to achieve a given data rate, the greater the cost

15. Basic Encoding Techniques Modulation involves operation on one of the three characteristics of carrier signal: Amp, Freq, Phase Digital data to analog signal Amplitude-shift keying (ASK) Amplitude difference of carrier frequency Frequency-shift keying (FSK) Frequency difference near carrier frequency Phase-shift keying (PSK) Phase of carrier signal shifted

16. Basic Encoding Techniques

17. Amplitude-Shift Keying Two binary values represented by two amplitudes of the carrier frequency One binary digit represented by presence of carrier, at constant amplitude Other binary digit represented by absence of carrier where the carrier signal is Acos(2πf c t)

18. Amplitude-Shift Keying Susceptible to sudden gain changes Inefficient modulation technique On voice-grade lines, used up to 1200 bps Used to transmit digital data over optical fiber

19. Binary Frequency-Shift Keying (BFSK) Two binary digits represented by two different frequencies near the carrier frequency where f 1 and f 2 are offset from carrier frequency f c by equal but opposite amounts

20. Binary Frequency-Shift Keying (BFSK) Less susceptible to error than ASK On voice-grade lines, used up to 1200bps Used for high-frequency (3 to 30 MHz) radio transmission Can be used at higher frequencies on LANs that use coaxial cable

21. Multiple Frequency-Shift Keying (MFSK) More than two frequencies are used More bandwidth efficient but more susceptible to error One signaling element represents more than one bit The transmitted signal for one signal element time is: f i = f c + (2i – 1 – M)f d f c = the carrier frequency f d = the difference frequency M = number of different signal elements = 2 L L = number of bits per signal element

22. Multiple Frequency-Shift Keying (MFSK) To match data rate of input bit stream, each output signal element is held for: T s =LT seconds where T is the bit period (data rate = 1/T) So, one signal element encodes L bits

23. Multiple Frequency-Shift Keying (MFSK) Total bandwidth required 2Mf d Minimum frequency separation required 2f d =1/T s Therefore, modulator requires a bandwidth of W d =2 L /LT=M/T s

24. Multiple Frequency-Shift Keying (MFSK)

25. Phase-Shift Keying (PSK) Two-level PSK (BPSK) Uses two phases to represent binary digits

26. Anther formulation is if d(t) is a discrete function that takes on values +1 and -1,same results can be achieved A d(t) d

27. Phase-Shift Keying (PSK) Differential PSK (DPSK) Phase shift with reference to previous bit Binary 0 – signal burst of same phase as previous signal burst Binary 1 – signal burst of opposite phase to previous signal burst

29. Phase-Shift Keying (PSK) Four-level PSK (QPSK) For efficient use of bandwidth each element represents more than one bit

30. Phase-Shift Keying (PSK) Multilevel PSK Using multiple phase angles with each angle having more than one amplitude, multiple signals elements can be achieved D = modulation rate, baud R = data rate, bps M = number of different signal elements = 2 L L = number of bits per signal element

32. Performance Bandwidth of modulated signal (B T ) ASK, PSKB T =(1+r)R FSKB T =2DF+(1+r)R R = bit rate 0 < r < 1; related to how signal is filtered DF = f 2 -f c =f c -f 1

33. Performance Bandwidth of modulated signal (B T ) MPSK MFSK L = number of bits encoded per signal element M = number of different signal elements

34. Quadrature Amplitude Modulation QAM is a combination of ASK and PSK Two different signals sent simultaneously on the same carrier frequency

35. Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

36. Any Questions?