1. Tricky bits…. Exceptions to all those rules – and common mistakes

2. Punctuation and Grammar Rules

3. Capitals Use capitals to:  Begin a sentence  For name and titles  For the pronoun I  For the first word of direct speech inside inverted commas EG: Sue smiled and said, “Everyone needs a holiday.”

4. Apostrophes An apostrophe has TWO uses:  To show where letters have been missed out Do + not = don’t  To show ownership The cat’s paws (one cat); The cats’paws (more than one cat)

5. Commas Use commas to make writing clear and easy to read. Commas are used:  To separate items in a list  To mark off part of a sentence that reads as if it were in brackets  To separate a person’s name from the rest of the senteces  To introduce direct conversation EG: The teacher said, “You must read your notes.”

6. Commas cont…  To separate details of a written date  To separate coordinate clauses joined by conjunctions such as and and but when the second clause contains a change of subject EG Their new product is in the shops, and they hope it will sell well.  A comma isn’t needed if the subject doesn’t change George has a black belt in karate and his sister is also skilled in the sport.

7. Comma splice Never join the principle clauses in a compound sentence with comma. EG:  Annabel is an excellent player, she scored the winning goal.x  Annabel is an excellent player, and she scored he winning goal OR   Annabel an excellent player; she scored the winning goal. 

8. Don’t break sentences in 2 Don’t use full stops for commas EG:  I met her at LPHS three years ago. On our first day of school.

9. Semicolons Instead of a conjunction to separate two clauses e.g.  Bill Bryson’s books are entertaining; they are filled with insightful ideas. To separate items in a list to avoid confusion To deliberately create a pause that will emphasise the following words.

10. Colons Use them after an independent clause to introduce a list of specifics, to amplify or before an illustrative quotation EG:  Your dedicated writer requires: a laptop, a dictionary and a notepad.  Even so, there was a directness to the burial: there was no wreath, no eulogy and no prayer.  The squalor of the streets reminded her of a quote from Wilde: “We are all in the gutter but some of us are looking at the stars.”

11. The dash Used to set off an abrupt break or interruption and to announce a long appositive or summary EG:  His first thought on getting out of bed – if he had any thought at all – was to get back in again.

12. Syntax

13. Run on sentences… A sentence in which two or more independent clauses (i.e. complete sentences) are joined without appropriate punctuation or conjunction. EG:sentenceindependent clauses  A run-on sentence, with no punctuation or conjunction between "five" and "we": It is nearly half past five we can not reach the town before dark.  A run-on sentence where some independent clauses are missing parts of speech, so that one clause "morphs" into the next: I was interested in bought one of them

14. Split infinitives Generally it’s wrong to spit the infinitive form of a verb (to be, to walk, to sing) with an adverb. EG:  My aim is to quickly do my homework.X  My aims to do my homework quickly. 

15. Different… Is followed by from, not to or than. Their attitudes are different to/than mine X Their attitudes are different from mine √

16. After I or We, use shall not will  I will travel to Australia in June X  I shall travel to Australia in June √ None should never be followed by a plural verb  None of the books have been returned X  None of the books has been returned √

17. Form the possessive singular by adding ‘s Charles’s friend, Burns’s poems Except the possessive of ancient proper names e.g. Jesus’ and forms such as righteousness’ sake Hers, its, theirs, yours and ours have no apostrophe but indefinite pronouns do use ‘s to show possession e.g. one’s rights

18. Subject and verb agreement A verb must always agree in number with its subject. If the subject is singular, then the verb must be singular too.  The doctor was going to the hospital. If the subject is plural, the verb must be plural too.  The doctors were going to the hospital

19. Collective nouns and verb agreement Collective nouns refer to a number of things  In most cases, treat as a singular so take a singular verb The crowd was moving towards the stadium  BUT if the noun seems like it can be treated as a number of individuals, use a plural verb The audience are leaping to their feet and cheering

20. Common Mistakes

21. Tautology Needless repetition of words Precise writing omits needless words  EG. The reason why was that (Because)  EG. In a hasty manner (Hastily)

22. Affect Effect Affect is always a verb. Meanings:  To act upon or influence  To make a difference to  To impress or move feelings  To make a show of or pretend The poem affected me deeply Effect can be a verb OR a noun  As a verb, effect means to cause or bring about  As a noun it means as a result of After promotion, she effected many changes

23. Your You’re Your is a pronoun (second person, possessive plural). EG:  Your car is faster than mine You’re is the contracted form of you + are EG:  You’re a safe a driver.

24. Their They’re There There is an adverb, describes position  EG That car over there is the latest model Their is an adjective, (possessive form) of they  EG Their car They’re is the contraction of they + are  EG They’re driving too fast for the conditions

25. To too To is a preposition, it shows the relationship between two or more things EG:  I am going to the shop Too is used to show agreement or more than one. EG:  I thought the concert was great too.

26. Its It’s Its is a possessive pronoun (third person singular) and doesn’t need an apostrophe EG:  The dog scratched its back It’s is a contraction sort of it + is OR it + has EG:  It’s a sad day when students forget basic grammar

27. Amount and Number Number refers to a specific amount, sum or count. EG;  Any number of students in Year 12 can pass this exam. Amount refers to quantity. Eg:  The amount of resistance surprised him.

28. Between and among; Either and any Between is used for two objects. eg:  Sue stood between the two goal posts Among/Amongst is used for more than two. Eg:  Sue ran amongst the opposing team’ back line. Use either if two things, any if more than two EG:  Any of the five books will do.

29. Each, either, neihter and every These words take  A singular verb because they imply separate individuals are involved. EG: Each one of the boys is to be stood down  A singular pronoun Every (one) person at the scene did his or her duty It is grammatically incorrect to use their (a third person, possessive plural pronoun) with each, every, either and neither

30. Lie and Lay Lie has to meanings  To tell a lie  To lie down or recline Lay means to put or place something down

31. Me and I When the pronoun is the subject of the verb, use I. When the pronoun is the object of the verb, use me.  She gave the books to Peter and I.X  She gave the books to Peter and me. 

32. Principle and Principal If the meaning is the sense of being first or most important, use principal. If it is in the sense of a rule or a standard, use principle.

33. More Tricky Bits

34. Double negatives When a sentence has a negative meaning, don’t put two negatives together EG:  I did not never do it x  She never used none of those booksx  I did not ever do it OR I never did it 

35. Relative pronouns For things, use which For people, use who, whom, whose Who is used when it’s the subject of the following verb Whom is used when it’s the object of the following verb OR after a preposition  This is the man who followed me.  This is the man whom I followed  This is the man to whom I spoke.

36. Relative pronouns cont…  This is the man whom I spoke to.  This is the man whose car I crashed.  This is the man who I think followed me. That – defining. Which – non defining.  Each made a list of books that had influenced him.  I always buy his books, which have influenced me.

37. Different… Is followed by from, not to or than. Their attitudes are different to/than mine X Their attitudes are different from mine √