1. Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Human Anatomy & Physiology, Sixth Edition Elaine N. Marieb PowerPoint ® Lecture Slides prepared by Vince Austin, University of Kentucky 5 Bones and Skeletal Tissues Part A http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vya4wpS2fgk

2. Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Skeletal Cartilage  Contains no blood vessels or nerves  Surrounded by the perichondrium (dense irregular connective tissue) that resists outward expansion  Three types – hyaline, elastic, and fibrocartilage Cartilage: A review

3. Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Hyaline Cartilage  Provides support, flexibility, and resilience  Is the most abundant skeletal cartilage  Is present in these cartilages:  Articular – covers the ends of long bones  Costal – connects the ribs to the sternum  Respiratory – makes up the larynx and reinforces air passages  Nasal – supports the nose

4. Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Elastic Cartilage  Similar to hyaline cartilage but contains elastic fibers  Found in the external ear and the epiglottis

5. Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Fibrocartilage  Highly compressed with great tensile strength  Contains collagen fibers  Found in menisci of the knee and in intervertebral discs

6. Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Growth of Cartilage  Appositional – cells in the perichondrium secrete matrix against the external face of existing cartilage  Interstitial – lacunae-bound chondrocytes inside the cartilage divide and secrete new matrix, expanding the cartilage from within  Calcification of cartilage occurs  During normal bone growth  During old age

7. Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Bones and Cartilages of the Human Body

8. Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Classification of Bones  Axial skeleton – bones of the skull, vertebral column, and rib cage  Appendicular skeleton – bones of the upper and lower limbs, shoulder, and hip

9. Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Classification of Bones: By Shape  Long bones – longer than they are wide (e.g., humerus)

10. Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Classification of Bones: By Shape Figure 6.2b  Short bones  Cube-shaped bones of the wrist and ankle  Bones that form within tendons (e.g., patella)

11. Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Classification of Bones: By Shape  Flat bones – thin, flattened, and a bit curved (e.g., sternum, and most skull bones)

12. Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Classification of Bones: By Shape  Irregular bones – bones with complicated shapes (e.g., vertebrae and hip bones)

13. Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Function of Bones  Support – form the framework that supports the body and cradles soft organs  Protection – provide a protective case for the brain, spinal cord, and vital organs  Movement – provide levers for muscles  Mineral storage – reservoir for minerals, especially calcium and phosphorus  Blood cell formation – hematopoiesis occurs within the marrow cavities of bones

14. Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Bone Markings  Bulges, depressions, and holes that serve as:  Sites of attachment for muscles, ligaments, and tendons  Joint surfaces  Conduits for blood vessels and nerves

15. Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Tuberosity – rounded projection  Crest – narrow, prominent ridge of bone  Trochanter – large, blunt, irregular surface  Line – narrow ridge of bone Bone Markings: Projections – Sites of Muscle and Ligament Attachment

16. Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Tubercle – small rounded projection  Epicondyle – raised area above a condyle  Spine – sharp, slender projection  Process – any bony prominence Bone Markings: Projections – Sites of Muscle and Ligament Attachment

17. Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Head – bony expansion carried on a narrow neck  Facet – smooth, nearly flat articular surface  Condyle – rounded articular projection  Ramus – armlike bar of bone Bone Markings: Projections – Projections That Help to Form Joints

18. Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Bone Markings: Depressions and Openings  Meatus – canal-like passageway  Sinus – cavity within a bone  Fossa – shallow, basinlike depression  Groove – furrow  Fissure – narrow, slitlike opening  Foramen – round or oval opening through a bone

19. Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Gross Anatomy of Bones: Bone Textures  Compact bone – dense outer layer  Spongy bone – honeycomb of trabeculae filled with yellow bone marrow

20. Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Structure of Long Bone  Long bones consist of a diaphysis and an epiphysis  Diaphysis  Tubular shaft that forms the axis of long bones  Composed of compact bone that surrounds the medullary cavity  Yellow bone marrow (fat) is contained in the medullary cavity

21. Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Structure of Long Bone  Epiphyses  Expanded ends of long bones  Exterior is compact bone, and the interior is spongy bone  Joint surface is covered with articular (hyaline) cartilage  Epiphyseal line separates the diaphysis from the epiphyses

22. Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Structure of Long Bone Figure 6.3

23. Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Bone Membranes  Periosteum – double-layered protective membrane  Outer fibrous layer is dense regular connective tissue  Inner osteogenic layer is composed of osteoblasts and osteoclasts  Richly supplied with nerve fibers, blood, and lymphatic vessels, which enter the bone via nutrient foramina  Secured to underlying bone by Sharpey’s fibers  Endosteum – delicate membrane covering internal surfaces of bone

24. Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Structure of Short, Irregular, and Flat Bones  Thin plates of periosteum-covered compact bone on the outside with endosteum-covered spongy bone (diploë) on the inside  Have no diaphysis or epiphyses  Contain bone marrow between the trabeculae

25. Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Structure of a Flat Bone

26. Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Location of Hematopoietic Tissue (Red Marrow)  In infants  Found in the medullary cavity and all areas of spongy bone  In adults  Found in the diploë of flat bones, and the head of the femur and humerus

27. Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Microscopic Structure of Bone: Compact Bone  Haversian system, or osteon – the structural unit of compact bone  Lamella – weight-bearing, column-like matrix tubes composed mainly of collagen  Haversian, or central canal – central channel containing blood vessels and nerves  Volkmann’s canals – channels lying at right angles to the central canal, connecting blood and nerve supply of the periosteum to that of the Haversian canal

28. Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Microscopic Structure of Bone: Compact Bone  Osteocytes – mature bone cells  Lacunae – small cavities in bone that contain osteocytes  Canaliculi – hairlike canals that connect lacunae to each other and the central canal

29. Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Microscopic Structure of Bone: Compact Bone

30. Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Chemical Composition of Bone: Inorganic  Hydroxyapatites, or mineral salts  Sixty-five percent of bone by mass  Mainly calcium phosphates  Responsible for bone hardness and its resistance to compression

31. Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Bone Development  Osteogenesis and ossification – the process of bone tissue formation, which leads to:  The formation of the bony skeleton in embryos  Bone growth until early adulthood  Bone thickness, remodeling, and repair

32. Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Formation of the Bony Skeleton  Begins at week 8 of embryo development  Intramembranous ossification – bone develops from a fibrous membrane  Endochondral ossification – bone forms by replacing hyaline cartilage

33. Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Intramembranous Ossification  Formation of most of the flat bones of the skull and the clavicles  Fibrous connective tissue membranes are formed by mesenchymal cells

34. Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Human Anatomy & Physiology, Sixth Edition Elaine N. Marieb PowerPoint ® Lecture Slides prepared by Vince Austin, University of Kentucky 5 Bones and Skeletal Tissues Part B

35. Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Review -- Chemical Composition of Bone: Organic Bone cell types: 1.Osteoblasts – bone-forming cells 2.Osteocytes – mature bone cells 3.Osteoclasts – large cells that resorb or break down bone matrix  Osteoid – unmineralized bone matrix composed of proteoglycans, glycoproteins, and collagen

36. Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Review -- Chemical Composition of Bone: Inorganic Hydroxyapatite, or mineral salts  Sixty-five percent of bone by mass  Mainly calcium phosphates, some other calcium salts (calcium hydroxide, etc.)  Responsible for bone hardness and its resistance to compression

37. Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Bone Development Osteogenesis and ossification – the process of bone tissue formation, which leads to:  The formation of the bony skeleton in embryos  Bone growth until early adulthood  Bone thickness, remodeling, and repair

38. Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Formation of the Bony Skeleton  Begins at week 8 of embryo development  Intramembranous ossification – bone develops from a fibrous membrane  Endochondral ossification – bone forms by replacing hyaline cartilage

39. Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Intramembranous Ossification  Formation of most of the flat bones of the skull and the clavicles  Fibrous connective tissue membranes are formed by mesenchymal cells

40. Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Stages of Intramembranous Ossification - How  An ossification center appears in the fibrous connective tissue membrane  Bone matrix is secreted within the fibrous membrane  Woven bone and periosteum form  Bone collar of compact bone forms, and red marrow appears

41. Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Stages of Intramembranous Ossification Figure 6.7.1

42. Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Stages of Intramembranous Ossification Figure 6.7.2

43. Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Stages of Intramembranous Ossification Figure 6.7.3

44. Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Stages of Intramembranous Ossification Figure 6.7.4

45. Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Endochondral Ossification  Begins in the second month (week 5 – 6) of embryo development  Uses hyaline cartilage “bones” as models for bone construction  Requires breakdown of hyaline cartilage prior to ossification

46. Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Stages of Endochondral Ossification  Formation of bone collar  Cavitation of the hyaline cartilage  Invasion of internal cavities by the periosteal bud, and spongy bone formation  Formation of the medullary cavity; appearance of secondary ossification centers in the epiphyses  Ossification of the epiphyses, with hyaline cartilage remaining only in the epiphyseal plates

47. Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Formation of bone collar around hyaline cartilage model. 1 2 3 4 Cavitation of the hyaline cartilage within the cartilage model. Invasion of internal cavities by the periosteal bud and spongy bone formation. 5 Ossification of the epiphyses; when completed, hyaline cartilage remains only in the epiphyseal plates and articular cartilages Formation of the medullary cavity as ossification continues; appearance of secondary ossification centers in the epiphyses in preparation for stage 5. Hyaline cartilage Primary ossification center Bone collar Deteriorating cartilage matrix Spongy bone formation Blood vessel of periostea l bud Secondary ossification center Epiphyseal blood vessel Medullary cavity Epiphyseal plate cartilage Spongy bone Articular cartilage Stages of Endochondral Ossification

48. Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Postnatal Bone Growth Growth in length of long bones  Cartilage on the side of the epiphyseal plate closest to the epiphysis is relatively inactive  Cartilage abutting the shaft of the bone organizes into a pattern that allows fast, efficient growth  Cells of the epiphyseal plate proximal to the resting cartilage form three functionally different zones: growth, transformation, and osteogenic

49. Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Long Bone Growth and Remodeling  Growth in length – cartilage continually grows and is replaced by bone as shown  Remodeling – bone is resorbed and added by appositional growth as shown

50. Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Long Bone Growth and Remodeling

51. Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Osteoblasts beneath the periosteum secrete bone matrix, forming ridges that follow the course of periosteal blood vessels. 1 2 3 4 As the bony ridges enlarge and meet, the groove containing the blood vessel becomes a tunnel. The periosteum lining the tunnel is transformed into an endosteum and the osteoblasts just deep to the tunnel endosteum secrete bone matrix, narrowing the canal. As the osteoblasts beneath the endosteum form new lamellae, a new osteon is created. Meanwhile new circumferential lamellae are elaborated beneath the periosteum and the process is repeated, continuing to enlarge bone diameter. Artery Periosteum Penetrating canal Central canal of osteon Periosteal ridge Appositional Growth of Bone Figure 6.11

52. Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings 1.During infancy and childhood, epiphyseal plate activity is stimulated by human growth hormone (HGH). 2.During puberty, testosterone and estrogens:  Initially promote adolescent growth spurts  Cause masculinization and feminization of specific parts of the skeleton  Later induce epiphyseal plate closure, ending longitudinal bone growth Hormonal Regulation of Bone Growth During Youth

53. Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Bone Remodeling 3.Remodeling units – adjacent osteoblasts and osteoclasts deposit and resorb bone at periosteal and endosteal surfaces

54. Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Bone Deposition Occurs where bone is injured or added strength is needed Requires a diet rich in protein, vitamins C, D, and A, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, and manganese Alkaline phosphatase (enzyme) is essential for mineralization of bone Sites of new matrix deposition are revealed by the:  Osteoid seam – unmineralized band of bone matrix  Calcification front – abrupt transition zone between the osteoid seam and the older mineralized bone

55. Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Bone Resorption Accomplished by osteoclasts Resorption bays – grooves formed by osteoclasts as they break down bone matrix Resorption involves osteoclast secretion of:  Lysosomal enzymes that digest organic matrix  Acids that convert calcium salts into soluble forms Dissolved matrix is transcytosed across the osteoclast’s cell where it is secreted into the interstitial fluid and then into the blood

56. Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Importance of Ionic Calcium in the Body Calcium (Ca 2+ ) is necessary for: 1.Transmission of nerve impulses 2.Muscle contraction 3.Blood coagulation 4.Secretion by glands and nerve cells 5.Cell division

57. Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Control of Remodeling Two control loops regulate bone remodeling  Hormonal mechanism maintains calcium homeostasis in the blood  Mechanical and gravitational forces (“exercise”) acting on the skeleton

58. Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Hormonal Mechanism  Rising blood Ca 2+ levels trigger the thyroid to release calcitonin (hormone)  Calcitonin stimulates calcium salt deposit in bone  Falling blood Ca 2+ levels signal the parathyroid glands to release PTH (parathyroid hormone)  PTH signals osteoclasts to degrade bone matrix and release Ca 2+ into the blood

59. Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Hormonal Mechanism

60. Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Response to Mechanical Stress Wolff’s law – a bone grows or remodels in response to the forces or demands placed upon it  Observations supporting Wolff’s law include  Long bones are thickest midway along the shaft (where bending stress is greatest)  Curved bones are thickest where they are most likely to buckle

61. Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Response to Mechanical Stress  Trabeculae form along lines of stress  Large, bony projections occur where heavy, active muscles attach

62. Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Response to Mechanical Stress: Wolff’s law