1. Inferential statistics

6. Why statistics are important Statistics are concerned with difference – how much does one feature of an environment differ from another Magnitude: The comparative strength of two variables. Reliability. The degree to which the measure of the magnitude of a variable can be replicated with other samples drawn from the same population.

7. Why statistics are important Relationships – how does much one feature of the environment change as another measure changes Correlation or regression r=0.73 N=20 p<0.01

8. Arithmetic mean or average Mean (M or X), is the sum (  X) of all the sample values ((X 1 + X 2 + X 3.…… X 22 ) divided by the sample size (N).  X = 45, N = 22. M =  X/N = 45/22 = 2.05

9. The median median is the "middle" value of the sample. There are as many sample values above the sample median as below it. If the sample size is odd (say, 2a + 1), then the median is the (a+1)st largest data value. If the sample size is even (say, 2a), then the median is defined as the average of the ath and (a+1)st largest data values.

10. Other measures of central tendency The mode is the single most frequently occurring data value. The midrange is the midpoint of the sample -- the average of the smallest and largest data values in the sample. Find the Mean, Median and Mode

12. The underlying distribution of the data

13. Normal distribution

14. All normal distributions have similar properties. The percentage of the scores that is between one standard deviation (s) below the mean and one standard deviation above is always 68.26% Mean =77.48 SD=7.15 N=62 - 2SD -1SD 0 +1SD +2SD -14.30 -7.15 0 +7.15 +14.30

15. Is there a difference between Rich and poor scores

16. Is there a significant difference between Polynesian and “other” scores Mean =75.0 SD=6.8 N=20 Mean =81.9 SD=6.5 N=20

17. Three things we must know before we can say events are different 1.the difference in mean scores of two or more events - the bigger the gap between means the greater the difference 2.the degree of variability in the data - the less variability the better

18. Variance and Standard Deviation These are estimates of the spread of data. They are calculated by measuring the distance between each data point and the mean variance (s 2 ) is the average of the squared deviations of each sample value from the mean = s 2 =  X-M) 2 /(N-1) The standard deviation (s) is the square root of the variance.

19. Calculating the Variance and the standard deviation for the Rich sample RichX-M(X-M) 2 72-9.8597.02 75-6.846.9 75-6.846.9 76-5.834.2 76-5.834.2 76-5.834.2 77-4.823.5 77-4.823.5 78-3.814.8 80-1.83.4 80-1.83.4 820.20.0 875.226.5 875.226.5 875.226.5 886.237.8 897.251.1 897.251.1 919.283.7 9513.2172.9 Total1637838.55 Mean (Mx)81.9variance(x)41.9 Nx=20Standard deviation (Sx)6.5

20. Three things we must know before we can say events are different 3.The extent to which the sample is representative of the population from which it is drawn - the bigger the sample the greater the likelihood that it represents the population from which it is drawn - small samples have unstable means. Big samples have stable means.

21. Estimating difference The measure of stability of the mean is the Standard Error of the Mean = standard deviation/the square root of the number in the sample. So stability of mean is determined by the variability in the sample (this can be affected by the consistency of measurement) and the size of the sample. The standard error of the mean (SEM) is the standard deviation of the normal distribution of the mean if we were to measure it again and again

22. Yes it’s significant. The Standard Errors of the Mean = 1.45 and 1.53, so the 95% confidence interval will be about 3 points (1.96*1.5) either side of the mean. The means falls outside each other’s confidence intervals

23. Is the difference between means significant? What is clear is that the mean of the Rich group is well outside of the area where there is a 95% chance that the mean for the Poor Group will fall, so it is likely that the Rich mean comes from a different population than the Poor mean. The convention is to say that if mean 2 falls outside of the area (the confidence interval) where 95% of mean 1 scores is estimated to be, then mean 2 is significantly different from mean 1. We say the probability of mean 1 and mean 2 being the same is less than 0.05 (p<0.05) and the difference is significant p

24. The significance of significance Not an opinion A sign that very specific criteria have been met A standardised way of saying that there is a There is a difference between two groups – p<0.05; There is no difference between two groups – p>0.05; There is a predictable relationship between two groups – p<0.05; or There is no predictable relationship between two groups - p>0.05. A way of getting around the problem of variability

25. If you argue for a one tailed test – saying the difference can only be in one direction, then you can add 2.5% error from side where no data is expected to the side where it is 2.5% of M1 distri- bution 2.5% of M1 distri=b ution 95% of M1 distri- bution 2-tailed test 1-tailed test

26. T-test results t-Test: Two-Sample Assuming Equal Variances PoorRich Mean7581.9 Variance49.144.1 Observations20 Pooled Variance46.6 Hypothesized Mean Difference0 df38 t Stat-3.2 P(T<=t) one-tail0 t Critical one-tail1.69 P(T<=t) two-tail0 t Critical two-tail2.02

27. Tests of significance Tests of difference – t-tests, analysis of variance, chi-square, odds ratios Tests of relationship – correlation, regression analysis Tests of difference and relationship – analysis of covariance, multiple regression analysis.

28. Chi-squared (  ) comparison of age in the sample vs the Waitakere population Participants in each category Obse rved Sam ple Expec ted Waita kere Age OEO-E(O-E) 2 (O-E) 2 /E 16-34 years 2623.352.657.000.30 35-54 2323.85-0.850.720.03 55-74 1011.52-1.522.300.20 N=4DF=3 75 and older 33.29-0.290.090.03 p=0.05    6262.01  0.56 NS=not significant

29. Values of chi-square for the research project The fact that two groups are not significant means that there is no significant difference between the sample and Waitakere population except for culture and qualifications Chi-squared GroupobtainedcriterionPsignificance Occupation 15.5621.03p<0.05NS Age 0.567.82p<0.05NS Family context 0.397.82p<0.05NS Culture 20.1311.07p>0.05Significant Gender 0.013.84p<0.05NS Qualifications 6.125.99p>0.05Significant

30. Person Height (inches) - X Self Esteem score/5 - Y Person Height (inches) - X Self Esteem score/5 -Y 1684.111683.5 2714.612673.2 3623.813633.7 4754.414623.3 5583.215603.4 6603.116634.0 7673.817654.1 8684.118673.8 9714.319633.4 10693.720613.6

31. r =(  (X – M X )*((Y – M Y ))/(N*S X *S Y ) r =correlation coefficient X = Height Y= Self Esteem M X =Mean of X M Y =Mean of Y S X =Standard deviation of X S Y =Standard deviation of y

33. r=0.73 N=20

34. Level of Significance Two-Tailed Probabilities Probability of error 0.10.050.010.001 Chance of not being correlated 10% or 1/10 5% or 1/20 1% or 1 /100 0.1% or 1/1000 r value when n=20 0.3780.4440.5610.679

35. One or two tails? What degrees of freedom What level of significance should be chosen?

36. Correlations

37. The perfect positive correlation

38. The perfect negative correlation

39. No correlation at all

40. A perfect relationship, but not a correlation

41. How correlation is used and misused

42. Normality of residuals, Linearity, & Homoscedasticity