1. 18.1 Mutations Are Inherited Alterations in the DNA Sequence

2. The Importance of Mutations Source of all genetic variation, which further provides the raw material for evolution Source of many diseases and disorders Useful for probing fundamental biological processes

3. Categories of Mutations Somatic mutations-occur in “body” of organism. Result in mosaic pattern of cells, but not passed down. Germ-line mutations-occur in cells producing gametes. Mutation is typically passed to half of offspring.

5. Types of Gene Mutations (based on their molecular nature) Base substitutions Transition-Pu for Pu; Py for Py Transversion-Pu for Py; Py for Pu Insertions and deletions Frameshift mutations-disrupts codon pattern In-frame insertions and deletions-insert or delete number of bases that is divisible by 3.

7. Concept Check 1 Which of the following changes is a transition base substitution? a.Adenine is replaced by thymine. b.Cytosine is replaced by adenine. c.Guanine is replaced by adenine. d.Three nucleotide pairs are inserted into DNA.

8. Concept Check 1 Which of the following changes is a transition base substitution? a.Adenine is replaced by thymine. b.Cytosine is replaced by adenine. c.Guanine is replaced by adenine. d.Three nucleotide pairs are inserted into DNA.

9. Phenotypic Effects of Mutations Forward mutation: wild type  mutant type Reverse mutation: mutant type  wild type Missense mutation-results in a different amino acid at one position of encoded protein

10. Phenotypic Effects of Mutations Silent mutation-different codon but still encodes for same amino acid Neutral mutation-missense mutation that changes amino acid sequence, but does not alter function of protein Nonsense mutation-changes amino acid into stop thus producing truncated protein

12. Phenotypic Effects of Mutations Loss-of-function mutations-cause complete or partial loss of protein function Gain-of-function mutations-cause either new function or function expressed at new times or location within organism Conditional mutation-altered function only under certain conditions (temperature sensitive)

13. Phenotypic Effects of Mutations Lethal mutation-severe enough to cause premature death Suppressor mutation: a mutation that hides or suppresses the effect of another mutation Intragenic-mutation in same gene as original mutation restores function Intergenic-mutation in other gene restores function (sometimes in tRNA genes)

15. Phenotypic Effects of Mutations Mutation rate-the rate at which a mutations occur. May be determined under normal conditions May be determined under altered conditions May be determined in the presence of harmful chemicals

17. Spontaneous Replication Errors Caused by mispairing through wobble

19. Spontaneous Replication Errors Strand slippage

21. Spontaneous Replication Errors Unequal crossing over

23. Spontaneous Chemical Changes Depurination: loss of purine Deamination: loss of an amino group

26. Chemically Induced Mutations Mutagen-a compound that induces mutations Base analogs-modified bases that function similar to regular bases in base pairing events

30. Chemically Induced Mutations Alkylating agents: donate alkyl group Ehtylmethylsulfonate EMS Mustard gas Deamination: nitrous acid

31. Chemically Induced Mutations Hydroxylamine: add hydroxyl group Oxidative reaction: superoxide radicals Hydrogen peroxide Intercalating agents: proflavin, acridine orange, and ethidium bromide

34. Concept Check 2 Base analogs are mutagenic because of which characteristic? a.They produce changes in DNA polymerase that cause it to malfunction. b.They distort the structure of DNA. c.They are similar in structure to the normal bases. d.They chemically modify the normal bases.

35. Concept Check 2 Base analogs are mutagenic because of which characteristic? a.They produce changes in DNA polymerase that cause it to malfunction. b.They distort the structure of DNA. c.They are similar in structure to the normal bases. d.They chemically modify the normal bases.

36. Radiation Pyrimidine dimer: two thymine bases block replication. SOS system in bacteria: SOS system allows bacteria cells to by pass the replication block with a mutation-prone pathway.

37. 18.3 Mutations Are the Focus of Intense Study by Geneticists

38. The Analysis of Reverse Mutations Ames Test

41. 18.4 A Number of Pathways Repair Changes in DNA

43. Mismatch Repair Mismatch-repair enzyme complex Direct repair: photolyase

46. Mismatch Repair Base-excision repair

48. Mismatch Repair Nucleotide-excision repair

55. Mismatch Repair Genetic diseases and faulty DNA repair Xeroderma pigmentosum

57. Concept Check 3 Mismatch repair in bacteria distinguishes between old and new strands of DNA on the basis of __________. a.differences in base composition of the two strands b.modification of histone proteins c.base analogs on the new strand d.methyl groups on the old strand

58. Concept Check 3 Mismatch repair in bacteria distinguishes between old and new strands of DNA on the basis of __________. a.differences in base composition of the two strands b.modification of histone proteins c.base analogs on the new strand d.methyl groups on the old strand