1. Variable state of intellectual activity in 13th-14th centuries Intellectual decline in comparison to Europe? 1. Impact of ongoing instability 2. Scholarship as activity at royal courts

2. Sunni schools of Islamic law: 1. Malikis 2. Shafi‘is 3. Hanafis 4. Hanbalis Qur’anhadith (stories of Muhammad and companions) “Closing of the gate of ijtihad?” mufti (jurisconsult)

3. Variations from Sunni mainstream: Kharijites Shi‘ite groups:Isma‘ilis (with living Imam) Twelvers (with hidden Imam)

4. Rejected by most Muslims: Druze (awaiting return of al-Hakim (d. 1021), in Lebanon and Syria) Nusayris (a.k.a. ‘Alawis, followers of Ibn Nusayr (d. 868), associated with trinity of ‘Ali (God of Qur’an), Muhammad and Salman the Iranian, also in Syria)

5. Sufistariqa = Sufi order wali = saintbaraka = blessing Ibn Taymiyya (d. 1328), critic of pilgrimages “Sufi deviants” known as dervishes, from darvish = wandering mendicant

6. New Sufi tariqas: Naqshbandis, named after Baha’ al-Din Naqshband of Bukhara (d. 1398), popular in C. Asia and India Bektashis, founded by Hajji Bektash (d. by 1337), popular among janissaries, had similarities to Nusayris and linked to Turkish Alevi Shi‘ite movement Safavids, founded by Safi al-Din (d. 1334) in Ardabil (Persia)

7. Taqi al-Din Ahmad ibn Taymiyya Hanbali theologian and mufti Family left Harran to avoid Mongol threat in 1269; thereafter brought up in Damascus 1284 Succeeded father as head of a madrasa (religious college) Ibn Taymiyya (1263-1328)

8. Also worked in various places as administrator and teacher. Employed by Mamluk sultans as jihad propagandist. Wrote many works, esp. fatwas on many legal topics. Advocate of Islamic reform 1293 onwards involved in number of political and theological disputes; repeatedly accused of anthropomorphism. Imprisoned several times Ibn Taymiyya (1263-1328)

9. Hafez (Shams al-Din Muhammad Shirazi, c. 1325-c. 1390) Famous Persian mystical poet, lived most of life in Shiraz Educated in religious sciences (hafiz = “one who has memorised the Qur’an”) and Persian poetry Sufi, but not ascetic. Lover of good life Wrote lyric poems in simple language, but replete with symbolic images