1. 1 Markets Specific location where buying and selling takes place, such as  Supermarket or a flea market In economics, a market is not a place but rather  A group of buyers and sellers with the potential to trade with each other Economists think of the economy as a collection of individual markets First step in an economic analysis is to define and characterize the market or collection of markets to analyze

2. 2 How Broadly Should We Define the Market Defining the market often requires economists to group things together  Aggregation is the combining of a group of distinct things into a single whole Markets can be defined broadly or narrowly, depending on our purpose  How broadly or narrowly markets are defined is one of the most important differences between Macroeconomics and Microeconomics

3. Aggregation 3

4. An Introduction to Demand (cont.) Diminishing Marginal utility helps to describe why the curve is downward sloping. The price must be lowered to meet your decreased satisfaction. The principle of diminishing marginal utility states that the satisfaction we gain from buying a product lessens as we buy more of the same product. Marginal utility is the extra usefulness or satisfaction a person receives from getting or using one more unit of a product.

5. 5 Buyers and Sellers Buyers and sellers in a market can be  Households  Business firms  Government agencies All three can be both buyers and sellers in the same market, but are not always For purposes of simplification this text will usually follow these guidelines  In markets for consumer goods, we’ll view business firms as the only sellers, and households as only buyers  In most of our discussions, we’ll be leaving out the “middleman”

6. 6 Competition in Markets In imperfectly competitive markets, individual buyers or sellers can influence the price of the product In perfectly competitive markets (or just competitive markets), each buyer and seller takes the market price as a given What makes some markets imperfectly competitive and others perfectly competitive?  Perfectly competitive markets have many small buyers and sellers Each is a small part of the market, and the product is standardized  Imperfectly competitive markets have just a few large buyers and sellers Or else the product of each seller is unique in some way

7. 7 Using Supply and Demand Supply and demand model is designed to explain how prices are determined in perfectly competitive markets  Perfect competition is rare but many markets come reasonably close  Perfect competition is a matter of degree rather than an all or nothing characteristic Supply and demand is one of the most versatile and widely used models in the economist’s tool kit

8. 8 Demand A household’s quantity demanded of a good  Specific amount household would choose to buy over some time period, given A particular price that must be paid for the good All other constraints on the household Market quantity demanded (or quantity demanded) is the specific amount of a good that all buyers in the market would choose to buy over some time period, given  A particular price they must pay for the good  All other constraints on households

9. 9 Quantity Demanded Implies a choice  How much households would like to buy when they take into account the opportunity cost of their decisions? Is hypothetical  Makes no assumptions about availability of the good  How much would households want to buy, at a specific price, given real-world limits on their spending power? Stresses price  Price of the good is one variable among many that influences quantity demanded  We’ll assume that all other influences on demand are held constant, so we can explore the relationship between price and quantity demanded

10. 10 The Law of Demand States that when the price of a good rises and everything else remains the same, the quantity of the good demanded will fall  The words, “everything else remains the same” are important In the real world many variables change simultaneously However, in order to understand the economy we must first understand each variable separately Thus we assume that, “everything else remains the same,” in order to understand how demand reacts to price

11. 11 The Demand Schedule and the Demand Curve Demand schedule  A list showing the quantity of a good that consumers would choose to purchase at different prices, with all other variables held constant The market demand curve (or just demand curve) shows the relationship between the price of a good and the quantity demanded, holding constant all other variables that influence demand  Each point on the curve shows the total buyers would choose to buy at a specific price Law of demand tells us that demand curves virtually always slope downward

12. 12 Figure 1: The Demand Curve Number of Bottles per Month Price per Bottle A B $4.00 2.00 D 40,00060,000 At $2.00 per bottle, 60,000 bottles are demanded (point B). When the price is $4.00 per bottle, 40,000 bottles are demanded (point A).

13. 13 Figure 2: A Shift of the Demand Curve BC $2.00 D1D1 D2D2 60,00080,000 An increase in income shifts the demand curve for maple syrup from D 1 to D 2. At each price, more bottles are demanded after the shift. Number of Bottles per Month Price per Bottle

14. 14 Dangerous Curves: “Change in Quantity Demanded” vs. “Change in Demand” Language is important when discussing demand  “Quantity demanded” means A particular amount that buyers would choose to buy at a specific price It is a number represented by a single point on a demand curve When a change in the price of a good moves us along a demand curve, it is a change in quantity demand  The term demand means The entire relationship between price and quantity demanded— and represented by the entire demand curve When something other than price changes, causing the entire demand curve to shift, it is a change in demand

15. 15 Income: Factors That Shift the Demand Curve An increase in income has effect of shifting demand for normal goods to the right  However, a rise in income shifts demand for inferior goods to the left A rise in income will increase the demand for a normal good, and decrease the demand for an inferior good

16. 16 Wealth: Factors that Shift the Demand Curve Your wealth—at any point in time—is the total value of everything you own minus the total dollar amount you owe An increase in wealth will  Increase demand (shift the curve rightward) for a normal good  Decrease demand (shift the curve leftward) for an inferior good

17. 17 Prices of Related Goods: Factors that Shift the Demand Curve Substitute—good that can be used in place of some other good and that fulfills more or less the same purpose  A rise in the price of a substitute increases the demand for a good, shifting the demand curve to the right Complement—used together with the good we are interested in  A rise in the price of a complement decreases the demand for a good, shifting the demand curve to the left

18. Change in the price of a substitute good Price of coffee rises:

19. Change in the price of a complementary good Price of DVDs rises:

20. 20 Other Factors that Shift the Demand Curve Population  As the population increases in an area Number of buyers will ordinarily increase Demand for a good will increase Tastes  Combination of all the personal factors that go into determining how a buyer feels about a good  When tastes change toward a good, demand increases, and the demand curve shifts to the right  When tastes change away from a good, demand decreases, and the demand curve shifts to the left

21. Expectations A higher expected future price will increase current demand. A lower expected future price will decrease current demand. A higher expected future income will increase the demand for all normal goods. A lower expected future income will reduce the demand for all normal goods.

22. 22 Figure 3(a): Movements Along and Shifts of the Demand Curve Quantity Price P2P2 Q2Q2 Q1Q1 Q3Q3 P1P1 P3P3 Price increase moves us leftward along demand curve Price increase moves us rightward along demand curve

23. 23 Figure 3(b): Movements Along and Shifts of the Demand Curve Quantity Price D2D2 D1D1 Entire demand curve shifts rightward when: income or wealth ↑ price of substitute ↑ price of complement ↓ population ↑ expected price ↑ tastes shift toward good

24. 24 Figure 3(c): Movements Along and Shifts of the Demand Curve Quantity Price D1D1 D2D2 Entire demand curve shifts leftward when: income or wealth ↓ price of substitute ↓ price of complement ↑ population ↓ expected price ↓ tastes shift toward good

25. 25 Supply A firm’s quantity supplied of a good is the specific amount its managers would choose to sell over some time period, given  A particular price for the good  All other constraints on the firm Market quantity supplied (or quantity supplied) is the specific amount of a good that all sellers in the market would choose to sell over some time period, given  A particular price for the good  All other constraints on firms

26. 26 Quantity Supplied Implies a choice  Quantity that gives firms the highest possible profits when they take account of the constraints presented to them by the real world Is hypothetical  Does not make assumptions about firms’ ability to sell the good  How much would firms’ managers want to sell, given the price of the good and all other constraints they must consider? Stresses price  The price of the good is just one variable among many that influences quantity supplied  We’ll assume that all other influences on supply are held constant, so we can explore the relationship between price and quantity supplied

27. 27 The Law of Supply States that when the price of a good rises and everything else remains the same, the quantity of the good supplied will rise  The words, “everything else remains the same” are important In the real world many variables change simultaneously However, in order to understand the economy we must first understand each variable separately We assume “everything else remains the same” in order to understand how supply reacts to price

28. 28 The Supply Schedule and The Supply Curve Supply schedule—shows quantities of a good or service firms would choose to produce and sell at different prices, with all other variables held constant Supply curve—graphical depiction of a supply schedule  Shows quantity of a good or service supplied at various prices, with all other variables held constant

29. 29 Figure 4: The Supply Curve F G 2.00 S 40,00060,000 $4.00 At $4.00 per bottle, quantity supplied is 60,000 bottles (point G). When the price is $2.00 per bottle, 40,000 bottles are supplied (point F). Number of Bottles per Month Price per Bottle

30. 30 Figure 5: A Shift of the Supply Curve S2S2 G J S1S1 60,000 $4.00 80,000 A decrease in transportation costs shifts the supply curve for maple syrup from S 1 to S 2. Number of Bottles per Month Price per Bottle At each price, more bottles are supplied after the shift

31. 31 Factors that Shift the Supply Curve Input prices  A fall (rise) in the price of an input causes an increase (decrease) in supply, shifting the supply curve to the right (left) Price of Related Goods  When the price of an alternate good rises (falls), the supply curve for the good in question shifts rightward (leftward) Technology  Cost-saving technological advances increase the supply of a good, shifting the supply curve to the right

32. 32 Factors that Shift the Supply Curve Number of firms  An increase (decrease) in the number of sellers—with no other changes—shifts the supply curve to the right (left) Expected price  An expectation of a future price increase (decrease) shifts the current supply curve to the left (right)

33. 33 Factors that Shift the Supply Curve Changes in weather  Favorable weather Increases crop yields Causes a rightward shift of the supply curve for that crop  Unfavorable weather Destroys crops Shrinks yields Shifts the supply curve leftward Other unfavorable natural events may effect all firms in an area  Causing a leftward shift in the supply curve

34. 34 Figure 6(a): Changes in Supply and in Quantity Supplied P2P2 Q3Q3 Q1Q1 Q2Q2 P1P1 P3P3 Quantity Price Price increase moves us rightward along supply curve S Price increase moves us leftward along supply curve

35. 35 Figure 6(b): Changes in Supply and in Quantity Supplied Quantity Price S2S2 S1S1 Entire supply curve shifts rightward when: price of input ↓ price of alternate good ↓ number of firms ↑ expected price ↑ technological advance favorable weather

36. 36 Figure 6(c): Changes in Supply and in Quantity Supplied Quantity Price S1S1 S2S2 Entire supply curve shifts rightward when: price of input ↑ price of alternate good ↑ number of firms ↓ expected price ↑ unfavorable weather

37. 37 In Summary: Factors that Shift the Supply Curve The short list of shift-variables for supply that we have discussed is far from exhaustive In some cases, even the threat of such events can cause serious effects on production Basic principle is always the same  Anything that makes sellers want to sell more or less of a good at any given price will shift supply curve

38. 38 Equilibrium: Putting Supply and Demand Together When a market is in equilibrium  Both price of good and quantity bought and sold have settled into a state of rest  The equilibrium price and equilibrium quantity are values for price and quantity in the market but, once achieved, will remain constant Unless and until supply curve or demand curve shifts The equilibrium price and equilibrium quantity can be found on the vertical and horizontal axes, respectively  At point where supply and demand curves cross

39. 39 Figure 7: Market Equilibrium E H J 1.00 $3.00 D S 50,00075,00025,000 Excess Demand 4.until price reaches its equilibrium value of $3.00. 2.causes the price to rise... 3.shrinking the excess demand... 1. At a price of $1.00 per bottle an excess demand of 50,000 bottles... Number of Bottles per Month Price per Bottle

40. 40 Excess Demand: Putting Supply and Demand Together Excess demand  At a given price, the excess of quantity demanded over quantity supplied Price of the good will rise as buyers compete with each other to get more of the good than is available

41. 41 Figure 8: Excess Supply and Price Adjustment 3.shrinking the excess supply... K L E 3.00 D S $5.00 50,00035,00065,000 Excess Supply at $5.00 2.causes the price to drop, 4.until price reaches its equilibrium value of $3.00. Number of Bottles per Month Price per Bottle 1.At a price of $5.00 per bottle an excess supply of 30,000 bottles...

42. 42 Excess Supply: Putting Supply and Demand Together Excess Supply  At a given price, the excess of quantity supplied over quantity demanded Price of the good will fall as sellers compete with each other to sell more of the good than buyers want

43. 43 Income Rises: What Happens When Things Change Income rises, causing an increase in demand  Rightward shift in the demand curve causes rightward movement along the supply curve  Equilibrium price and equilibrium quantity both rise Shift of one curve causes a movement along the other curve to new equilibrium point

44. 44 Figure 9: A Shift in Demand and a New Equilibrium 1.An increase in demand... E F' 3.00 D1D1 D2D2 S $4.00 50,00060,000 3.to a new equilibrium. 5.and equilibrium quantity increases too. 2.moves us along the supply curve... Number of Bottles of Maple Syrup per Period Price per Bottle 4.Equilibrium price increases

45. 45 An Ice Storm Hits: What Happens When Things Change An ice storm causes a decrease in supply  Weather is a shift variable for supply curve Any change that shifts the supply curve leftward in a market will increase the equilibrium price  And decrease the equilibrium quantity in that market

46. 46 Figure 10: A Shift of Supply and a New Equilibrium E' E3.00 D $5.00 50,00035,000 S2S2 S1S1 Number of Bottles Price per Bottle

47. 47 Figure 11: Changes in the Market for Handheld PCs 1.An increase in supply... 2.and a decrease in demand... 5. and quantity decreased as well. A B $400 D 2003 S 2002 S 2003 D 2002 $500 2.453.33 Millions of Handheld PCs per Quarter Price per Handheld PC 4.Price decreased... 3.moved the market to a new equilibrium.

48. 48 Both Curves Shift When just one curve shifts (and we know the direction of the shift) we can determine the direction that both equilibrium price and quantity will move When both curves shift (and we know the direction of the shifts) we can determine the direction for either price or quantity—but not both  Direction of the other will depend on which curve shifts by more

49. 49 The Principle of Markets and Equilibrium The supply-and-demand model is just one example of a more general approach  To identify a market and examine its equilibrium Basic Principle #4: Markets and Equilibrium  To understand how the economy behaves, economists organize the world into separate markets and then examine the equilibrium in each of those markets This approach helps us predict important changes in the economy and prepare for them  And it helps us predict important changes in the economy our social goals and avoid policies that are likely to backfire

50. 50 Price Ceilings Government-imposed maximum price that prevents the price of a good from rising above a certain level in a market Short side of the Market  Smaller of quantity supplied and quantity demanded at a particular price  When quantity supplied and quantity demanded differ, short side of market will prevail Price ceiling creates a shortage and increases the time and trouble required to buy the good  While the price decreases, the opportunity cost may rise Black Market  A market created by unintended consequences of government intervention Goods are sold illegally at a price above the legal ceiling

51. 51 Figure 12: A Price Ceiling in the Market for Maple Syrup 60,00050,00040,000 T E V R D S $4.00 3.00 2.00 2.increases quantity demanded 3.and decreases quantity supplied. 4.The result is a shortage – the distance between R and V. Number of Bottles of Maple Syrup per Period Price per Bottle 1.A price ceiling lower than the equilibrium price... 5.With a black market, the lower quantity sells for a higher price than initially.

52. 52 Price Floors Government imposed minimum amount below which price is not permitted to fall  Price floors for agricultural goods are commonly called price support programs When sellers produce more of the good than buyers want at the price floor  Remaining goods become a surplus that no one wants at the imposed price Government responds by maintaining price floors  Uses taxpayer dollars to buy up entire excess supply of the good in question  Prevents excess supply from doing what it would ordinarily do Drive price down to its equilibrium value

53. 53 The Principle of Policy Tradeoffs In our discussion of government intervention in markets, you may have noticed something interesting  A policy designed to help us achieve one goal causes us to compromise on some other goal In fact, as you will see throughout this text, there are virtually always tradeoffs involved in government policy making  For this reason, we consider government policy tradeoffs to be one of the basic principles of economics

54. 54 The Principle of Policy Tradeoffs Basic Principle #5: Policy Tradeoffs  Government policy is constrained by the reactions of private decision makers  As a result, policy makers face tradeoffs Making progress toward one goal often requires some sacrifice of another goal Economics is famous for making the public aware of policy tradeoffs

55. 55 Using Supply and Demand: The Invasion of Kuwait Why did Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait cause the price of oil to rise?  Immediately after the invasion, United States led a worldwide embargo on oil from both Iraq and Kuwait  A significant decrease in the oil industry’s productive capacity caused a shift in the supply curve to the left Price of oil increased

56. 56 Figure 13: The Market For Oil P2P2 D E' P1P1 E Q2Q2 Q1Q1 S2S2 S1S1 Barrels of Oil Price per Barrel of Oil

57. 57 Using Supply and Demand: The Invasion of Kuwait Why did the price of natural gas rise as well?  Oil is a substitute for natural gas  Rise in the price of a substitute increases demand for a good  Rise in price of oil caused demand curve for natural gas to shift to the right Thus, the price of natural gas rose

58. 58 Figure 14: The Market For Natural Gas Cubic Feet of Natural Gas Price per Cubic Foot of Natural Gas P4P4 P3P3 F Q3Q3 Q4Q4 S D2D2 F' D1D1