1. Chapter 8: Thinking Starting on p. 344 Guest Lecturer: Leah Shapira, M.A. Music: “Imagine” John Lennon “Think Like A Man” Orianthi

2. Thinking: Agenda 1. The Cognitive Revolution 2. Reasoning: a) deductive b) inductive 3. Problem Solving: a) approaches b) barriers 4. Judgments & Decision Making Problems (a-f) 5. Common Cognitive Distortions 6. Thinking Critically Pointers

3. 1.The Cognitive Revolution “I think therefore I am…” Descartes How do we know what we know? Authority Reason: Considered by Renaissance scholars to be the most reliable source of knowledge Observation: Basis for empirical knowledge Cognitive Psychologists: Study reasoning, judgments, decision making, and problem solving

4. 2. Reasoning a) Deductive: Drawing a conclusion that follows logically from two or more statements or premises Note: **If one of the premises is false, then conclusion must be false Example: Premise 1: All human beings have cognitions Premise 2: All cognitions are intelligent Conclusion: All human beings have intelligent cognitions…. Valid but false conclusion

5. 2. a) Deductive Reasoning (cont’d) Invalid Conclusions: Conclusions must follow logically from 2 or more premises to be valid Example: Premise 1: Some A’s are B’s Premise 2: Some B’s are C’s Conclusion: Some A’s are C’s? OR Premise 1: Some women are intelligent beings Premise 2: Some intelligent beings are men Conclusion: Some women are men? A’sB’sC’s

6. 2. a) Deductive Reasoning (cont’d) Belief Bias Effect: We tend to judge as true those conclusions with which we agree, and as untrue those with which we disagree

7. 2. a) Confirmation bias: p. 362

8. A Look at Critical Thinking… http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6OLPL5 p0fMg

9. 2. b) Inductive Reasoning Problem solver goes from the particular to the general Typical in process in science Base a hypothesis on limited evidence, and test it against other evidence Example: Problems of inducing structure (p. 344): Can you supply missing number? 1 3 4 7 ___ 5 9 13 __ 21 Analogies: Carpenter: House Author:_____ Star: Constellation Room:______

10. 3. Problem Solving Thinking directed toward solving a specific problem. Approaches: Clarify! What is initial state? What is goal state? Means-end analysis: specify subproblems and subgoals to move from initial state to goal b) Barriers: p. 326-327 Functional Fixedness Mental Sets: Can help or hinder E.g. O-T-T- __ -__ -__ J- F- M- A- __ - __ - __ Stress: leads to fixation e.g. soldiers in war action

11. 4. Judgments & Decision Making Judgments: Processes by which we form opinions, reach conclusions, make evaluations of people and events Problems: a) Overconfidence effect p. 342 b) Availability Heuristic p. 337 Basing a probability on the ease with which an example comes to mind E.g. Which is the most frequent cause of death?  1) Homicides vs diabetes  2) Leukemia vs drowning  3) Earthquakes vs asthma c) Representativeness Heuristic: Basing a probability on the similarity with a prototype

12. “The Second Mind” http://www.gladwell.co m/blink/blink_excerpt1.html

13. 4. Heuristics cont’d c) Representativeness Heuristic (con’d): E.g. You hear about a person who is short, slim, and likes to read poetry. Is this person more likely to be a Literature Professor, or a truck driver? d) Conjunction Fallacy: ( p. 338 ) E.g. Bill is 34 years old, intelligent, unimaginative, compulsive, and somewhat boring. Which is more likely to be true? Bill plays jazz as a hobby OR Bill is an accountant who plays jazz as a hobby Jazz as hobby Accountants

14. p.357

15. 4. Judgments & Decision Making (cont’d) e) Framing: (p. 362) Decisions are heavily influenced by the way in which a question is asked E.g. Will you undergo a particular surgery if: a) 90% chance of recovery b) 10% chance of death f) Alternative Outcomes Effect Perceived likelihood of a certain outcome is influenced by the distribution of alternative outcomes Another example of “bounded rationality” People deviate in predictable ways from optimal decision making

16. 5. Common Cognitive Distortions Arbitrary Inference: Drawing unfavorable conclusions about oneself without evidence (e.g. m ind-reading/ fortune-telling) Magnification and minimization: Dwelling on the negative and discounting the positive Overgeneralization: Viewing a negative event as a never-ending pattern of defeat Reasoning from how you feel: E.g. “I feel like an idiot… Therefore, I must be one.” Personalization: Taking blame for events that are unintended or beyond one’s control

17. 6. Thinking Critically Critical Thinking: Ability to make objective judgments on the basis of well- supported reasons and evidence Rather than basing your judgment on emotion or anecdotal evidence To improve: Remember common pitfalls Define your terms concretely Examine the evidence  Be aware of your biases Avoid emotional reasoning Avoid simplistic explanations Tolerate uncertainty  Form convictions with care, and carry them lightly!

18. Wishing You: