1. NATURAL LAW Aquinas’s Natural Moral Law
THE THEORY
EVALUATION OF STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES

2. Initial Points
Generally Natural Law means that there are certain laws that occur naturally as part of the universe, they are fixed and unchanging and separate from human opinion – and potentially discoverable through reason. We find that others have come to the same conclusions.
Origins: these laws may have been put there by God, or simply exist without reason.
The interpretation of Natural Law we are considering is the one developed by Aquinas and which functions within morality and Christianity, necessitating a God who is responsible for the laws.

3. Natural Law - Aquinas About Aquinas; Born 1225 in Naples. Died 1274.
Born 1225 in Naples. Died 1274.
Started training at age 5 with Benedictine Monks.
Work based on Aristotle
He wrote about a wide range of topics including knowledge, ethics, metaphysics, politics, psychology…
Main work, the "Summa theologica"

4. Roman Catholic church - Adopted Aquinas’ ideas as their ‘official view’
Roman Catholics determine what is ‘good’ by applying Natural Law. Specifically it is the church leaders (priests, the Pope, Vatican Council) who apply Natural Law rather than the lay community of Catholics; who are expected instead to follow the teachings of these church leaders.

5. Defining Natural Law - Catholic Encyclopaedia
According to St. Thomas, the natural law is "nothing else than the rational creature's participation in the eternal law”
When God willed to give existence to creatures, he willed to direct them towards an end - a PURPOSE.
Because of his intelligence and free will, man is master of his own conduct. But is subject to God’s law.
The rule, then, which God has prescribed for our conduct, is found in our NATURE itself. Those actions which conform with its tendencies, lead to our destined end, and are thereby right and morally good; those at variance with our nature are wrong and immoral.

6. Examples
a) It is wrong to drink to intoxication, for, besides being injurious to health, such indulgence deprives one of the use of REASON, which is intended by God to be the guide and dictator of conduct.
b) Theft is wrong, because it subverts the basis of social life; and man's nature requires for proper development that he live in a state of society.
A Classic Example;
“Thou shalt not kill"; this need careful understanding as the taking of human life is sometimes a lawful, and even an obligatory act. This does not present a variation in the law; what the law forbids is not all taking of life, but all unjust taking of life.

7. Natural Law as NATURAL
Natural because it is set up in our very nature, created by God.
Natural because it is revealed to us by the natural process of reason.
Viewed like ‘scientific’ laws of nature in that they are part of the structure of the universe
Aquinas was an Ethical Naturalist because he believed we could locate and understand morals through reference to nature.
Unchanging and fixed, universal, that is to say, it applies to the entire human race, and is in itself the same for all and immutable (cannot cease to exist - eternal).

8. Natural Law and God (Christianity)
Aquinas needed to explain his theory carefully to show he was not replacing faith with reason and therefore replacing Christianity.
He showed that human reasoning came from God (and so necessitating God’s existence).
He promoted the value of applying common sense (reasoning) in moral decision making, rather than ‘blinding’ following Biblical commands.
Aquinas showed how Biblical teachings and reasoning can work together. Appealing to intelligent people and still remaining faithful to God.

9. Natural Law, Aristotle and PURPOSE
Aristotle and CAUSE (remember Aristotle predate Christianity)
Everything in the universe has an Efficient Cause – the agent that brings something about; and a Final Cause – an ultimate reason for existence (purpose).
Aquinas adopted this view and combined it with his Christian beliefs;
God is the agent who bought everything into existence AND each thing that exists has a reason (purpose).

10. Natural Law, GOODNESS & PURPOSE
Aristotle…
..said that something was ‘good’ if it fitted its purpose – was worked towards ‘actualising’ its potential.
E.g., a good knife is one that cuts well, because that is its purpose.
Aquinas…
…made this fit a Christian context;
To be ‘good’ involves following / acting in accordance with God’s purpose. As that is God’s will.
In other words; Goodness is about fulfilling ones purpose, which means turning potentiality into actuality.

11. Biblical teachings + Reasoning = Purpose
Natural Law and REASON
Reasoning involves using observation, applying intelligence and common-sense. Looking at the design and function apparent in nature and drawing conclusions.
Reasoning is a gift from God.
Aquinas claims that we can discover Natural Moral Laws that inform us of our purpose through reasoning and reference to Biblical teachings;
The Formula:
Biblical teachings + Reasoning = Purpose

12. The ‘Sex’ Example - Natural Law in practice
Biblical teachings on sex:
‘..man will leave his father and mother and be united to his wife, and they will become one flesh’ Genesis 2:24 +
Reasoning regarding sex :
We can observe in nature that the different genders are designed in such a way as to reproduce and we can note that the product of such couplings is the creation of new life.
= A key purpose of sex is to create new life.

13. The implications of this….
Roman Catholic’s who use Natural Law (as advised by
their church leaders) are opposed to;
Contraception and Abortion – because they interfere with / work against the purpose of sex (to create new life); which is therefore against the will of God.
So, it is with reference to Natural Law theory that Roman
Catholics can justify and explain their opposition to
contraception and abortion.

14. Natural Law Summary – Key notes
Like Natural Laws such as gravity there are naturally occurring moral laws put in place by God.
An Absolutist approach to morality not Relativist.
Laws are defined as;
Universal, Fixed, Unchanging, Objective (not subject to public opinion), Applying to all people.
They reveal God’s purpose for us.
Christian understanding of the concept is largely based on the work of Saint Thomas Aquinas.
Key words include: NATURAL LAWS, GOODNESS, PURPOSE, GOD’S WILL, REASONING, BIBLICAL TEACHINGS AND ROMAN CATHOLICS.

15. How to act morally according to Aquinas’s version of Natural Law…
To know what it is to be ‘good’ requires….
Knowledge of our purpose based on God’s will which requires…..
Knowing the Natural Moral Laws set down by God which requires….
Using Reasoning + Biblical teachings (the Natural Law approach to making moral decisions).

16. Strengths of Natural Law
It is an absolute moral code, not just opinion nor subject to change and is applicable to everyone. This means a shared, objective morality with no cultural barriers. So, one society can judge another.
Uses and respects human reasoning.
Appeals instinctively to people; that morality is based on more than just opinion and is relative from culture to culture. We can identified shared morals with vastly different people and cultures.

17. Weaknesses of Natural Law
Aquinas assumes the existence of God.
Aquinas assumes God created the world for a purpose, Sartre, Russell and Dawkins would argue that it simply came about by chance.
Darwin offers an alternative explanation of the purpose of our designed which does not include a God – Evolution and Natural Selection.
Even if there were a purpose it may not be as clear as Aquinas claims; what we consider to be ‘natural’ changes over time. E.g. Homosexuality was long considered ‘unnatural’ yet recent studies suggest it may be genetically determined and therefore extremely natural. This is a meta ethical problem.

18. Aquinas was optimistic. Not everyone wants to do good
Aquinas was optimistic. Not everyone wants to do good. Aquinas’s reply – they have simply misunderstood how to be good and think they are acting morally.
Counter Criticism: We can give examples of people who are not acting according to what is right e.g., bullies.
A strict application of Natural Law may be impractical. E.g., if the purpose of sex is procreation what of those who are infertile? E.g., if the purpose of every man and woman is to marry and have children to be in accordance with the good; where does that leave Mother Teresa – should we call her immoral!
Aquinas’s reply – some individuals may choose other ways of life so long as humanity works towards its purpose.
Counter Criticism: But would this then give license to ‘unnatural’ actions in society, provided there were enough people still following human kinds purpose

19. The Fall - Original sin occurred through the quest for knowledge over faith. This event led to a distancing of humanity from God, meaning that we cannot accurately understand his purpose for us and must place greater trust in Biblical teachings and direct revelations rather than reasoning.
Natural Law falls into G.E.Moore’s ‘Naturalistic Fallacy’, it is false reasoning to judge what ‘ought’ to be done morally based on observations of what ‘is’ done in the world.

20. Practice Exam questions
(a) Explain how the concept of ‘purpose’ is used in Natural Law. [33 marks] A01
(b)‘Natural Law is an easy system to live by’. Discuss. [17 marks] A02