1. The Rhetoric of Argument White and Billings The Well-Crafted Argument

2. Monty Python's "Argument Clinic"

3. Nature and Process The more we know about argument – what it involves, how a strong argument is constructed, and what a weak argument lacks – the more likely we are to benefit from this liberty. The more we know about argument – what it involves, how a strong argument is constructed, and what a weak argument lacks – the more likely we are to benefit from this liberty.

4. Informal versus Formal Informal versus Formal –Casual arguments often consist of little more than exchanges of opinions or unsupported generalizations –Formal arguments are expected to include evidence in support of generalizations if they are to succeed in making strong points, solving real problems, or changing minds.

5. Three basic ingredients Three basic ingredients –Relevant information –Convincing Evidence –Pattern of Reasoning Definition of Argument Definition of Argument –A form of discourse in which the writer or speaker tries to persuade an audience to accept, reject, or think a certain way about a problem that cannot be solved by scientific or mathematical reasoning alone.

6. Opinion versus Argument Opinion versus Argument –Opinion = Public flogging of robbers would be a more effective deterrent than jailing them. –Opinion = “yeah, probably.” or “No way – that would contribute to a culture of violence.” –Argument = Supporting the statement with statistics that show a correlation between public punishment and the crime rate *A good argument takes time to prepare and also guides the audience through a logical step-by-step line of reasoning from thesis to conclusion.

7. Definition of Argument Breakdown “… a pattern of reasoning” “… a pattern of reasoning” –logical progression that leads the reader from thesis to support of thesis to conclusion –unfamiliar terms or concepts are carefully defined or explained and background information is given to enable audience to understand larger context EX: SUVs are selling better than subcompacts (DOES NOT ESTABLISH A VALID ARGUMENT) EX: SUVs are selling better than subcompacts (DOES NOT ESTABLISH A VALID ARGUMENT) EX: The enormous popularity of SUVs is rapidly increasing gasoline consumption nationally, which in turn is leading to greater dependence on foreign oil. (ESTABLISHES A VALID ARGUMENT) EX: The enormous popularity of SUVs is rapidly increasing gasoline consumption nationally, which in turn is leading to greater dependence on foreign oil. (ESTABLISHES A VALID ARGUMENT)

8. Definition of Argument Breakdown “… reinforced by detailed evidence” “… reinforced by detailed evidence” –any assertion must be backed up with specific, compelling evidence that is accurate, timely, relevant, and sufficient. –Evidence can be data derived from surveys, experiments, observations, firsthand field investigations (statistical evidence), or from expert opinion (authoritative evidence).

9. Definition of Argument Breakdown “… that tries to persuade the audience to accept the claim” “… that tries to persuade the audience to accept the claim” – the ultimate goal: to convince the audience that arguer’s point of view is a sensible one, worthy of serious consideration if not outright acceptance. –Often times appeals are used to reinforce evidence

10. Exercise 1.1 Formulate an answer for 2 a,b,c,d

11. Communicating with Purpose Communication (Aristotelian) Triangle (Audience, Writer, Subject) Communication (Aristotelian) Triangle (Audience, Writer, Subject) Rhetorical Rhombus (Audience, Writer, Subject, Purpose) Rhetorical Rhombus (Audience, Writer, Subject, Purpose) Three Basic Kinds of Communication Three Basic Kinds of Communication –Referential (Expository) –Expressive –Argumentative

12. Purpose in an Argumentative Context The purpose is the reason why you want your audience to agree with your claim and take whatever actions is necessary to carry it out. The purpose is the reason why you want your audience to agree with your claim and take whatever actions is necessary to carry it out.

13. Role Play: Role Play: –Teacher X: Student X, your support seems a little limited – doesn’t seem to be any umpf to your argument, where can we add more to this paper? –Student: I don’t know. –Teacher X: Well, what was your purpose for writing this paper? –Student: You assigned it. This is a PROBLEM! You should find a professional or intrinsic purpose for writing on the topic. This is how your scope will be limited and your essay will be full of passion and energy.

14. Audience in an Argumentative Context Your audience for all papers, unless otherwise noted, is Academic. Your audience for all papers, unless otherwise noted, is Academic. –The purpose of academic writing is knowledge-sharing or idea-sharing  Here is what scholars have said, now here is my two-bits

15. Academic Arguments Specialized precise language Specialized precise language Formal or semi-formal tone Formal or semi-formal tone All primary or secondary sources explicitly cited and documented, using standard formats All primary or secondary sources explicitly cited and documented, using standard formats Contributions by other scholars in the field are discussed formally and in detail Contributions by other scholars in the field are discussed formally and in detail Scholarly audience Scholarly audience

16. Writer in an Argumentative Context The Writer’s role is determined by the other elements in the Rhetorical Rhombus. The Writer’s role is determined by the other elements in the Rhetorical Rhombus.

17. Subject in an Argumentative Context The role of subject differs in each argument based on the other elements of the Rhombus The role of subject differs in each argument based on the other elements of the Rhombus

18. The Process of Composing Read, Read, Read – Immerse yourself in the subject then you may be reading to work through the writing process. Read, Read, Read – Immerse yourself in the subject then you may be reading to work through the writing process.

19. Organizing the Argument Introduce the topic Introduce the topic –The situation in the narrative –The subject matter to be explained in an exposition or explanation; the problem in an argument Present the particulars of the situation Present the particulars of the situation –the sequencing of incidents in a narrative –elements of a phenomenon in an exposition or explanation –the nature of the problem, followed by the body of evidence, in an argument Conclude Conclude –The outcome in a narrative –The whole picture in an explanation –The interpretation, assessment, and recommendations in an argument

20. Organizing the Argument Classical Model Classical Model –Begins with introduction that establishes the problem and states the thesis –Analyzes the evidence and refutes opposing views in light of the evidence collected –Draws conclusions and provides recommendations Toulmin Model Toulmin Model –Value Dependent, truth tested according to the values Rogerian Model Rogerian Model –One shifts the emphasis to the social act of negotiating difference through argument –Value Dependent but it must be negotiated cooperatively

21. Composing Openings Occasional Opening Occasional Opening –Reference to current event Startling Opening Startling Opening –Use of unexpected information Anecdotal Opening Anecdotal Opening –Brief story to engage the reader’s attention Analytical Opening Analytical Opening –Launches immediately into a critical discussion

22. Composing the Body of the Argument The Promise made to the readers is fulfilled in the body The Promise made to the readers is fulfilled in the body The subject portion of the Rhombus: the detailed support – facts, examples, illustrations – as well as the emotional, logical, ethical appeals. The subject portion of the Rhombus: the detailed support – facts, examples, illustrations – as well as the emotional, logical, ethical appeals.

23. Composing Conclusions A good conclusion enables readers to grasp the full impact of the argument. A good conclusion enables readers to grasp the full impact of the argument. –If the intro states the claim, the body argues for the validity of the claim by citing evidence for it, the conclusion encapsulates all those points of evidence –Reflect back on the paper –Broaden the scope beyond your paper –Reinforce the readers’ emotional involvement  Feelings of security, hope, happiness, self-confidence, optimism, or overall well-being