1. Thinking Like an Economist Chapter 2 Copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc. All rights reserved. Requests for permission to make copies of any part of the work should be mailed to: Permissions Department, Harcourt College Publishers, 6277 Sea Harbor Drive, Orlando, Florida 32887-6777.

2. Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc. Every field of study has its own terminology Mathematics axioms integrals vector spaces Psychology ego id cognitive dissonance Law torts venues Promissory estoppel

3. Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc. Every field of study has its own terminology Economics Supply Demand Elasticity Consumer Surplus Comparative advantage Opportunity cost Deadweight loss

4. Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc. Economics trains you to.... u Think in terms of alternatives. u Evaluate the cost of individual and social choices. u Examine and understand how certain events and issues are related.

5. Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc. The Economist as a Scientist The economic way of thinking... u Involves thinking analytically and objectively. u Makes use of the scientific method.

6. Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc. The Scientific Method u Uses abstract models to help explain how a complex, real world operates. u Develops theories, collects, and analyzes data to prove the theories. Observation, Theory and More Observation!

7. Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc. The Role of Assumptions u Economists make assumptions in order to make the world easier to understand. u The art in scientific thinking is deciding which assumptions to make. u Economists use different assumptions to answer different questions.

8. Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc. The Economic Way of Thinking u Includes developing abstract models from theories and the analysis of the models. u Uses two approaches: u Descriptive (reporting facts, etc.) u Analytical (abstract reasoning)

9. Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc. Economic Models u Economists use models to simplify reality in order to improve our understanding of the world u Two of the most basic economic models include: u The Circular Flow Model u The Production Possibilities Frontier

10. Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc. The Circular-Flow Model The circular-flow model is a simple way to visually show the economic transactions that occur between households and firms in the economy.

11. Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc. The Circular-Flow Diagram Firms Households Market for Factors of Production Market for Goods and Services SpendingRevenue Wages, rent, and profit Income Goods & Services sold Goods & Services bought Labor, land, and capital Inputs for production

12. Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc. The Circular-Flow Diagram Households u Buy and consume goods and services u Own and sell factors of production Firms u Produce and sell goods and services u Hire and use factors of production

13. Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc. The Circular-Flow Diagram Markets for Factors of Production u Households sell u Firms buy Markets for Goods & Services u Firms sell u Households buy

14. Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc. The Circular-Flow Diagram Factors of Production u Inputs used to produce goods and services u Land, labor, and capital

15. Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc. The Production Possibilities Frontier （生產可能曲線） The production possibilities frontier is a graph showing the various combinations of output that the economy can possibly produce given the available factors of production and technology.

16. Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc. The Production Possibilities Frontier Quantity of Computers Produced Quantity of Cars Produced 3,000 0 1,000 2,000 700 1,000 300 A B 2,200 600 C D

17. Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc. The Production Possibilities Frontier Quantity of Computers Produced Quantity of Cars Produced 3,000 1,000 2,000 2,200 A 700 60030001,000 B C D Production possibilities frontier

18. Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc. Concepts Illustrated by the Production Possibilities Frontier u Efficiency u Tradeoffs u Opportunity Cost u Economic Growth

19. Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc. 4,000 The Production Possibilities Frontier Quantity of Computers Produced Quantity of Cars Produced 3,000 2,000 A 700 01,000 E 2,100 750 An outward shift in the production possibilities frontier

20. Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc. Microeconomics and Macroeconomics u Microeconomics （個體經濟學） focuses on the individual parts of the economy. u How households and firms make decisions and how they interact in specific markets u Macroeconomics （總體經濟學） looks at the economy as a whole. u How the markets, as a whole, interact at the national level.

21. Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc. Two Roles of Economists u When they are trying to explain the world, they are scientists. u When they are trying to change the world, they are policymakers.

22. Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc. Positive vs Normative Analysis ( 實是性與規範性）  Positive statements are statements that describe the world as it is. u Called descriptive analysis  Normative statements are statements about how the world should be. u Called prescriptive analysis

23. Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc. ? ? Positive or Normative Statements? An increase in the minimum wage will cause a decrease in employment among the least-skilled.

24. Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc. ? ? ? Positive or Normative Statements? Higher federal budget deficits will cause interest rates to increase.

25. Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc. ? ?? ? Positive or Normative Statements? The income gains from a higher minimum wage are worth more than any slight reductions in employment.

26. Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc. ? ? ? Positive or Normative Statements? State governments should be allowed to collect from tobacco companies the costs of treating smoking-related illnesses among the poor.

27. Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc. Economists in Washington...... serve as advisers in the policymaking process of the three branches of government: u Legislative u Executive u Judicial

28. Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc. Why Economists Disagree u They may disagree on theories about how the world works. u They may hold different values and, thus, different normative views.

29. Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc. Examples of What Most Economists Agree On u A ceiling on rents reduces the quantity and quality of housing available. u Tariffs and import quotas usually reduce general economic welfare.

30. Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc. Summary u In order to address subjects with objectivity, economics makes use of the scientific method. u The field of economics is divided into two subfields: microeconomics and macroeconomics.

31. Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc. Summary u Economics relies on both positive and normative analysis. Positive statements assert how the world “is” while normative statements assert how the world “should be.” u Economists may offer conflicting advice due to differences in scientific judgments or to differences in values.